Nalanda Ajanta Caves- Bihar

Buddhist monuments like the stupas are among the earliest monuments to be found in India, going back to 230-500 B.C. At Nalanda, southeast of Patna in Bihar, excavations have revealed temples, monasteries, cells and libraries, and statues. Near Aurangabad in Maharashtra, about 30 rock-caves famous as the Ajanta caves contain delicate carvings and frescoes, which are still colourful. At Bodha Gaya in Bihar, a decorative railing and a stupa portray medieval architectural styles.
At Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh, Emperor Ashoka, who had embraced and promoted Buddhism, had raised the first of the famous Ashokan pillars. Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh has a massive stupa with marvellously carved gateway and railings. Kushinagara in Uttar Pradesh is another site where Ashoka had erected a pillar and constructed a stupa. The principal stupa has a large hemispherical dome topped with a small balcony surrounded by three umbrellas.
A stone casing was added to the original structure sometime later, and two smaller stupas and an impressive carved gateway erected. It was visited by Huien Tsang in the 7th century! In Ladakh, there are gumphas or monasteries, for example, at Leh, Lamayarn, and Spituk.

Agra Fort- Agra

Built principally as a military establishment by Akbar in 1565, the red sandstone Agra fort was partially converted into a palace during Shah Jahans time. Though the principle structure was built by Akbar many more additions were made by his grandsons. This massive fort is 2.5 kms long and is considered as the predecessor of the Delhi Red fort. The colossal walls are 20feet high and the whole fort is encircled by a fetid moat. Amar Singh gate towards the south is the only entry point in the fort. The building and structures inside the fort gives an impression of a city within the city. Many of the building inside the fort is now closed for the public. The marble pearl mosque inside the fort is one of the most stunningly beautiful mosques in India. Diwan-i- Am : This structure was originally made out of wood but was later constructed in the present form by Shah Jahan. The throne room bears a clear influence of Shah Jahan style with the inlaid carving and panels of marble with floral motifs. This hall of public hearing is the place where the Emperor heard the petition’s of the public and met the officials. The hall of public hearing gives way to the Nagina Mosque and the Ladies bazaar where only ladies merchants were allowed to sell items to the Moghal ladies. Diwan-E-Khas : This was the hall of private audience. This hall was also added by Shah Jahan. Thsi hall is divided into two rooms connected by three arches and it was here that the famous peacock throne was kept before being shifted to Delhi by Aurangzeb and finall carried away to Iran. Octagonal Tower : This exquisitely carved tower is close to the Diwan-i- Khas. It was here that Shah Jahan spent last seven years of his life imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb. The tower was considered to provide one of the best views of the Taj but today the pollution has reduced the visiblity. The tower is in bad shaoe today but blank spaces and the empty inlay works give an idea how this building must have looked in those days. Jehangir Palace : This was built by Akbar for his favourite son Jehangir to provide him with the comfort and luxury inside the fort.

Qutub Minar- Delhi

15 km south of New Delhi, the Qutab Minar rises high into the firmament over looking an entire area - named Mehrauli which is dotted with ruins of Islamic monuments. The minar or tower itself is 73 metres high, its diameter 15 metre at the base and just 2 and a ½ metres at the top. It has five distinct storeys, the first three are of red sandstone, and the fourth and fifth of marble and sandstone. Each storey has a projecting balcony.
The ornamental work on the tower only reinforces the impressive stature of the tower. It was started in 1193, after the last Hindu kingdom in Delhi fell to the Afghan invader Qutab-ud-din. The Qutab Minar complex contains Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, the first mosque to be built in India. It was surrounded in early 13th century by a cloistered court by Iltutmish, and in early 14th century by a red sandstone gateway( the Alai Darwaza) by Ala-ud-din. To the north of the Qutab Minar and the mosque, stands an unfinished minar 27 metres high, This is the Ala-i Minar, begun by Ala-ud-din but abandoned after his death. Beside the Ala-i Darwaza lies the tomb of Imam Zamin and Iltutmish"s tomb is by the north-west of the mosque. In the courtyard of the mosque stands a 7-metre-high iron pillar, which is one of the wonders of India. It was brought from elsewhere and erected there by the Hindu king Chandra Varman in the 5th century.
Its origins may have been in the Gupta period. Indications that it had once been crowned by the figure of the mythical bird Garuda who carries the Hindu god Vishnu on his back suggest that the pillar had originally belonged to a temple dedicated to a Vishnu temple. The iron in the pillar is of such inexplicable purity that it has not rusted in all these centuries. It testifies to the fact that ancient India had acquired great metallurgical skills. Most everyone who visits the Qutab Minar tries to encircle the iron pillar with one"s back to the pillar. It is supposed to be wish-fulfilling.

Taj Mahal - Agar

Typical frontal views of the Taj fail to capture its full magic the magic that has inspired many , including Rabindranath Tagore to poetry. The 17th century Mughal emperor Shah Jehan fell in love with Mumtaz Mahal at first sight and waited full five years for her hand to be granted to him in marriage. In their 19 years of married life, she bore him 14 children(of which only 6 survived to adulthood, and only 3 to old age), before dying in childbirth in 1632, the fourth year of Shah Jehan"s reign. Devastated with grief, Shah Jehan determined to build the world"s most beautiful mausoleum for her. For two decades, workers from all over India and also from Central Asia, worked on it. The main architect was Isha Khan of Iran, but experts included Austin of Bordeaux, France and Veroneo of Venice, Italy. The Taj Mahal complex in Agra is situated on the bank of river Yamuna, and is approached through a high red sandstone gateway with Koranic inscriptions. The gardens, walks, watercourse, fountains and subsidiary structures of the complex are dominated and unified by the multi-domed Taj Mahal itself which stands on a raised marble platform with four tall but purely decorative minarets at four of its corners. The actual tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan are in the basement while in the main chamber, there are false tombs surrounded by lace-like marble screens. The marble all around is inlaid with semi-precious stones in the pietra dura process. From every view , in every weather , in dawn and dusk, in nights moonlit and moonless, the Taj is an unique experience.

The Golden Temple - Amritsar

The most famous of Sikh monuments is the Golden Temple at Amritsar. It contains the Darbara Sahib, a hallowed place built on a small island in the middle of a pool. Erected at the end of the 16th century, it was ornamented and covered with gilt in 1802 by Ranjit Singh.It contains no shrine. It is the sacred book Guru Granth Sahib that is in the seat of honour. Patna Sahib, Sri Kesargarh Sahib (Anandpur, Punjab), Sri Huzur Sahib, and Damdama Sahib (Nanded, Maharashtra) are other such holy and important places.

Konark- Orrisa

Konarak is a small coastal place about 33 km from Puri and 64 km from Bhubaneswar, the capital of the State of Orissa. Its famous Suryamamndir ( Sun Temple) was built in the 13th century and lay half-hidden under the sands till 1904.The temple, built to commemorate a military victory, was conceived as a chariot for Sura, the Sun God. There are 24 gigantic carved-stone wheels around the base of the temple, and 7 horses pulling at it.
All over the huge temple is laden with carvings, sculptures, figures and bas-reliefs. The main entrance is guarded by two stone lions crushing elephants. Horses strain on either side as steps rise to the main entrance. There are three images of Surya , so constructed as to catch the sun at dawn, noon and sunset. Between the main steps and the entrance enclosure, there is a dancing hall. Elephants and horses trampling on men add to the awful majesty of the temple.
Beginning at the base of the temple, and going up to the walls and roof is a continuous series of carvings, some minute and some gigantic, mostly of men and women in erotic postures. There is said to be a philosophical basis for having so much eroticism displayed on the external surface of the temple, especially at the base and the middle. It is that Spiritualism is at the core and on higher levels

Basilica Of Bom Jesus - Goa

The Basilica of Bom Jesus was started in 1594 and completed in 1605.A simple monument, not plastered on the outside, it has richly gilded altars. It contains the tomb and mortal remains of St.Francis Xavier who had first arrived in Goa in 1542 to spread Christianity in the Portugese colonies of the east. Even though he had died on 3 December , 1552 in Sancian Island near China, his body was found undecayed in 1554, when it was sent to Goa. After he was canonised, his body was removed to the Basilica of Bom Jesus. Every year a festival is held in Goa on the anniversary of St Xavier"s death, and thousands of pilgrims flock to the Basilica. Every 10 years, the body is exposed to public view on the death anniversary, the next occasion being 2004.The Duke of Tuscany underwrote the construction of the Tomb of St Francis, and Giovanni Batista Foggini, the sculptor from Florence, executed it.10 years were required for its completion, which came in 1698. The bodily remains of St Xaviers are in a silver casket(once, a bejeweled one). Surrounding walls contain murals depicting scenes from St Xavier"s missionary journeys. Next to the Basilica. There is the Professed House, a two-storeyed laterite building covered with lime plaster. The Jesuits opposed its construction but it was completed in 1585. Partially burnt in 1663, it was rebuilt in 1783

Dhamekh Stupa- Sarnath- Bhiar

Ancient Sarangnath or Sarnath also known as Mrigadava (deer park), only 8 kms. away from Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. He set the great "Wheel of Law" (Dharmachakra) in motion here, more than 2,500 years ago by revealing to the world his Eight fold path - the path to end sorrow, achieve inner peace, enlightenment and ultimate Nirvana. The region once housed 3,000 monks.
Remains of the Dharmarajika Stupa set up by Asoka; his Sarnath pillar edict and ruins of temples and monasteries and the spot where the Emperor meditated in seclusion; takes one back to the heydays of the Mauryan empire. The remains of an ancient monastery can still be seen here.

Bibi Ka Makabra- Aurangabad
Bibi Ka Maqbara is the tomb of Begum Rabia Durani, wife of Emperor Aurangazeb. The monument is an excellent example of Persian Architecture. The arched aclove surmounted by a swelling dome, the idea had acquired its own reputation in India. This is also popularly known as "Mini Taj Mahel". Located in Aurangabad in the state of Maharashtra, it makes excellent iternity with Ananta and Elora caves in the Aurangabad.

Fort of Bidar - Maharashtra
Palaces, pavilions and seraglios ; lush gardens, decorated fountains and perfumed baths have all the trappings of an Arabian Nights fantasy when Bidar was ruled by the Bahamanis and the Barid Shahi Sultans of the Deccan.
The main gateway to the magnificent Fort of Bidar was originally built by Bahamani Sultan Ahmad Shah Wali in 1429. Further improvements to the citadel were carried out by the Barid Shahi Sultans. Ahmad Shah Wali (1422 - 35) the ninth Bahamani Sultan decided to shift his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar for reasons of health. Sprawled on a plateau 2,200 feet above sea level and overlooking the Manjira River Valley, cool and exhilarating Bidar was most certainly a part of ancient Vidharba mentioned in the Mahabharata. The main gateway to the magnificent Fort of Bidar. Built by Bahamani Sultan Ahmad Shah Wali in 1429. In medieval times Bidar belonged to the Chalukyan branch who established their capital in 977 A.D. at Kalyani, 57 kms away. Falling to the Yadavas of Devagiri (Daulatabad) and to the Kakatiyas of Warangal in 1322 A.D., Bidar fully rose to prominence under the sultanate regime.

INDIAN MONUMENTS

Elephanta - Maharashtra
The southwestern side portrays the marriage of Shiva & parvati. The central figures are of Shiva the divine bridegroom, holding the right hand of Paravati. As the daughter of the mountains, she symbolizes the earth and stands demure and a little shy at she weds her divine partner. The portrait of Shiva is wonderful. His strong masculine figure adorned with handsome jewels and wearing a dhoti with a knotted sash presents a powerful contrast to the delicate form of Parvati exquisitely attired in her bridal finery. Brahma, the priest who joins these two together in matrimony, while Vishnu stands behind him as the best man wearing a elongated crown. On the other side in Chand, the moon god framed by a crescent halo, while the sky above is packed with hosts of heavenly beings that have gathered to celebrate the cosmic marriage of Shiva & Parvati.

Rockcut shrines - Ajanta
The ancient Buddhist caves of Ajanta bequeath to us a threefold artistic heritage. Havell, a leading art historian early in this century, had this to say about them. Very rarely in the world`s history has there come together that true symphony of the three arts: painting, sculpture and architectonic design, creating the most perfect architecture, which are so beautifully harmonised at Ajanta. The story of Ajanta is fascinating. Sometime in the second century this rugged horseshoe-shaped cliff, carved out by the Waghora river, was chosen to be the site of a great Buddhist establishment. Buddhist monks or artisans sculpted out shrines for prayer (chaitya halls) and monasteries for their stay (viharas). The next phase began around the fifth century AD with chaitya halls and viharas for monks of the Mahayana sect who portrayed in their paintings and sculptures images of the Buddha, their spiritual teacher and guide. The Buddhist order lived and� and sustaining themselves on the fruits of the forest and donations made by wealthy patrons. The caves once had steps and pathways that led to the meandering river shimmering below, and it is from here that the monks obtained their supply of water. The volcanic rock of the Deccan plateau, rich in minerals, provided the colours for the paintings: ochre reds and yellows, lamp black, lime for white, and lapis lazuli from distant lands for touches of brilliant blue. The rooms, after they had been roughly hewn, were coated with layers of plaster mixed with hay and husks to bind the mud to the ceilings, pillars, and walls. Then paint was applied on the entire expanse, not on wet plaster, as in the technique of fresco painting, but on a semi-dry surface. The caves were carved out of the solid face of the hillside, sculpted with pillars, rooms and images, and painted almost` simultaneously. Then for no apparent reason the caves were abandoned for several hundred years.

LOHRI
The Fire Festival Lohri falls on January 13 every year. Considered the coldest day of the year, Lohri celebrations are marked by the lighting of bonfires. Celebrated in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, parts of Jammu and Kashmir, and Delhi, Lohri occurs in the month of Magha and falls on January 13 every year. It marks the end of the long and arduous winter. According to Hindu mythology, a year represents a 24-hour period in the life of the gods. The first six months represent the day, which is considered auspicious, and the second half the night, which is inauspicious. Lohri marks the last day in the night of the gods and is succeeded by Makara Sankranti, which welcomes the sun back to the northern hemisphere. This festival follows the solar calendar and also celebrates nature in all its bounty. Lohri occurs at a time when there is nothing to be done in the fields. The overworked farmers therefore take time off from their lands to enjoy and make merry. Since this day is traditionally considered the coldest day of the season, people collect in the evening around a bonfire made of dried hay and leaves to sing and dance. Bhangra and Gidda are the most popular dance forms. Special Lohri songs are also sung. In villages, the Lohri mood builds up over a week. Young boys and girls go from door to door, singing special Lohri songs and collecting gifts and money from residents. In the evenings, people gather to drink country liquor and celebrate. Two days prior to the festival, twigs and logs, dry leaves, hay, and paper are collected and placed in an open area away from the houses and barns. This is in preparation of the Lohri bonfire, the central event of the festival. Sometimes donations are accepted from residents to buy wood from the market. On the evening of Lohri, the eldest woman of the family prays for its welfare and prosperity and for the community. An elder then ceremonially kindles the fire. Once it is ablaze, peanuts, sesame seeds, rewari, batashe, popcorn and other harvest produce are thrown into it. This is probably in thanks giving and to appease Arani Devi. Unmarried girls collect the nuts that escape the fire and eat them, in the hope of getting a good husband. The mood is upbeat and everyone sings and dances around the fire. The fire and the dancing provide respite from the biting cold. A newborn child`s and a bride`s first Lohri in her new home are very important. Friends and relatives are invited for the occasion. Both baby and newly wed are dressed up, a bride in all her finery wearing new clothes and jewelry given to her by her mother-in law. Kheer made with fresh sugarcane juice is a speciality on Lohri. Prayers are also offered to Arani Devi. In Himachal Pradesh, the festival is called Magli. This is the time when the Rabi crop has been sown, and there is little else to do. The farmers enjoy this temporary relief from their agricultural labour. A unique custom observed in Himachal Pradesh on Lohri is the slaughtering of a goat in every house. The goat, symbolic of fertility and prosperity, is fattened the whole year in preparation for its slaughter on Lohri.

SHIVARATRI
The Great Night of Shiva Celebrated on the new moon night in the month of Phalguna, this Hindu festival is dedicated to Lord Shiva. Observed especially by married women to ensure the long life of their husbands, it consists of a full day`s fast and annointing the idol of Shiva with milk, water and honey. Literally `the great night of Shiva`, celebrated on the moonless night of the month of Phalguna, which is fourteenth day in the dark half, this festival is specially dedicated to Shiva, the destroyer. This is an important day for the devotees of Shiva, who stay awake throughout the night, praying to him. In all major centres of Shivalinga worship, Shivaratri, also called Mahashivaratri, is a grand occasion. From the very early morning, Shiva temples are flocked by devotees, mostly women, who come to perform the traditional Shivalinga worship and hence hope for favours from the god. All through the day, devotees abstain from eating food and break their fast only the next morning, after the night-long worship. The day is considered to be especially auspicious for women. According to one myth, Parvati performed tapas, and prayed and meditated on this day to ward off any evil that may befall her husband on the moonless night. Since then,Mahashivaratri is also believed to bean auspicious occasion for women to pray for the well-being of their husbands and sons. An unmarried woman prays for a husband like Shiva, who is considered to be the ideal husband. Devotees bathe at sunrise,preferably in the Ganga, or any other holy water source (like the Shiva Sagartank at Khajurao). They offer prayers to the sun, Vishnu and Shiva. This is apurificatory rite, an important part of all Hindu festivals. Wearing a clean piece of clothing after the holy bath, worshippers carry pots of water to the temple to bathe the Shivalinga. The temple reverberates with the sound of? bells and shouts of Shankerji ki Jai or `Hail Shiva`. Devotees circumambulate the linga, three or seven times, and then pour water over it. Some also pour milk. According to a legend in the Ramayana, once King Bhagiratha left his kingdom to mediate for the salvation of the souls of his ancestors.He observed a penance to Brahma for a thousand years, requesting Ganga to come down to earth from heaven. He wanted her to wash over his ancestor`s ashes to release them from a curse and allow them to go to heaven. Brahma granted his wish but told him to pray to Shiva, who alone could sustain the weight of her descent. Accordingly, Ganga descended on Shiva`s head, and after meandering through his thick matted locks, reached the earth. According to a modified version, what reached the earth was just sprinkles from his hair. This story is believed to be re-enacted by bathing the linga. The love of water, the primary element of life, is also remembered in this ritualistic action. The linga is bathed with milk, water and honey. It is then annointed with sandalwood paste. People offer wood apple or bel leaves and fruit, milk, sandalwood and jujube fruit or ber to the linga. Shiva is believed to be very hot tempered, and hence things which have a cooling effect are offered to him. People decorate the linga with flowers and garlands and also offerincense sticks and fruit. In bigger temples, there is almost a stampede as devotees seek favours from the beloved god. Many also employ the services of a priest to perform special prayers. According to the Shiva Purana, the Mahashivaratri worship must incorporate six items: the ceremonial bath representing purification of the soul; the vermilion paste applied on the linga after bathing it, representing virtue; food offering which is conducive to longevity and gratification of desires; incense, yielding wealth; the lighting of the lamp which is conducive to the attainment of knowledge; and betel leaves marking satisfaction with worldly pleasures. These six items, till today, form an indispensable part of Mahashivaratri, be it a simple ceremony at home or a grand temple worship. By offering water, hugging the linga, lighting the diya and incense, and ringing the temple bells, devotees call into focus all their senses, making them acutely aware of themselves and the universe to which they belong. Shiva being an ascetic god, Mahashivaratri is very popular with ascetics. Thandai, a drink made with cannabis, almonds and milk, is essentially drunk by the devout. This is so because cannabis is said to have been very dear to Shiva. The Puranas contain many stories and legends describing the origin of this festival. According to one, during the samudra manthan, a pot of poison emerged from the ocean. This terrified the gods and demons as the posion was capable of destroying the entire world, and they ran to Shiva for help. To protect the world from its evileffects, Shiva drank the deathly poison but held it in his throat instead of swallowing it. Because of it, his throat turned blue, and he was given the name Neelakantha, the blue-throated one. Shivaratri is the celebration of this event by which Shiva saved the world. According to another legend in the Shiva Purana, once Brahma and Vishnu were fighting over who was the superior of the two. Horrified at the intensity of the battle, the other gods asked Shiva to intervene. To make them realise the futility of their fight, Shiva assumed the form of a huge column of fire in between Brahma and Vishnu. Awestruck by its magnitude, they decided to find one end each to establish supremacy over the other. Brahma assumed the form of a swan and went upwards and Vishnu as Varaha went into the earth. But light has no limit and though they searched for thousands of miles, neither could find the end. On his journey upwards, Brahma came across a Ketaki flower wafting down slowly. When asked where she had come from, the Ketaki replied that she had been placed at the top of the fiery column as an offering. Unable to find the uppermost limit, Brahma decided to end his search and take the flower as a witness. At this,the angry Shiva revealed his true form. He punished Brahma for telling a lie, and cursed him that no one would everpray to him. The Ketaki flower too was banned from being used as an offering for any worship, as she had testified falsely. Since it was on the 14th day in the dark half of the month of Phalguna that Shiva first manifested himself in the form of a linga, the day is specially auspicious and is celebrated as Mahashivaratri. Worshipping Shiva on this day is believed to bestow one with happiness and prosperity. Phalguna is a peculiar month. Immediately after Mahashivaratri, almost like a miracle, the trees are full of flowers as if to announce that after winter, the fertility of the earth has been rejuvenated. And this perhaps is the reason why the linga is worshipped throughout India as a symbol offertility. The festivities differ in various parts of India. In southern Karnataka, for example, children are allowed to get into all kinds of mischief and asking for punishment is the rule of the day, probably originating from the mythological incident of Shiva punishing Brahma for lying. The Vishvanatha Temple at Kashi in Varanasi celebrates the linga (symbolicof the pillar of light) and the manifestation of Shiva as the light of supreme wisdom. Mahashivaratri is thus not only a ritual but also a cosmic definition of the Hindu universe. It dispels ignorance, emanates the light of knowledge,makes one aware of the universe, ushers in the spring after the cold and dry winter, and invokes the supreme power to take cognizance of the beings who were created by him. A legend explains the benefits of the all-night worship of Shiva. There was once a poor tribal man who was a great devotee of Shiva. One day hewent deep into the forest to collect firewood. However he lost his way and could not return home before nightfall. As darkness fell, he heard the growls of wild animals. Terrified, he climbed onto the nearest tree for shelter till day-break. Perched amongst the branches, he was afraid he would doze and fall off the tree. To stay awake, he decided to pluck a leaf at a time from the tree and drop it, while chanting the name of Shiva. At dawn, he realised that he had dropped a thousand leaves onto a linga below which he had not seen in the dark. The tree happened to be a wood apple or bel tree. This unwitting all-night worship pleased Shiva, by whose grace the tribal was rewarded with divine bliss. This story is recited on Mahashivaratri by devotees on fast. After observing the all-night fast, devotees eat the prasad offered to Shiva. There is another possible reason for the origin of the all-night worship. Being a moonless night, people worshipped the god who wears the crescent moon as an adornment in his hair, Shiva. This was probably to ensure that the moon rose the next night

TEEJ
A Festive Procession of Parvati The festival of Teej celebrates the onset of the monsoon in the month of Shravana, after the long and arduous summer. The day commemorates the event of Parvati leaving the home of her parents as a bride and Shiva coming to fetch her. The festival is extremely popular among women in north India. Married women come to their parents` home to celebrate this festival. It is an occasion for them to sing, dance and make merry. Songs in praise of Parvati, whose devotion to her husband is exemplary, are popularly sung. Special swings are hung on tree branches, and the women, revelling in the transformed, verdant country side,swing on them. They dress up as befits a married woman, adorning all the solashringara. They fast to rededicate themselves to their husband and family. It is believed that by praying to Parvati, marital bliss is best owed upon oneself. Usually a fair is organised on this occasion. For the rural women specially, this is a time to pamper and enjoy oneself, by buying bangles, bindis, bead necklaces, gettingphotographs taken, and eatingsumptuous dishes. After a ceremonial worship at home, an image of Parvati, clad in red and gold, borne on a palanquin is taken out in a procession, representative of her marriage procession. Several elephants, camels and dancers accompany the idol. Another form of Teej observed in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Biharand Maharashtra is Haritalika Teej. This is a three-day festival, celebrated by women also in honour of Parvati, in the month of Bhadrapad. By praying to Parvati on these three days, unmarried girls hope to get a husband like Shiva.Married women pray to her for marital bliss. According to Hindu mythology, Parvati was in love with Shiva. Being an ascetic however, Shiva was not aware of her. Parvati performed penance on the Himalayas for many years before Shiva finally noticed her.Realising the depth of her love and devotion, he agreed to marry her.Since then Parvati has been worshipped as Haritalika. Women and young girls maintain nirjala vrata on these three days, and keep awake all three nights. This is symbolic of the penance which Parvati undertook to get Shiva as her husband.They offer food to Brahmins and young girls. In Maharashtra, women wear green bangles, green clothes, golden bindis and kajal to signify their luck.?`Mehendi` one of the 16 adornments of a married woman, applied on Teej They distribute beautifully painted coconuts to their female relatives and friends and offer fresh fruit and green vegetables to the goddess as thanksgiving. When the rituals are over, they eat a feast of jaggery and rice patolis steamed in banana leaves,a sweet made from coconut milk and rice, and mixed vegetables cooked with spices and coconut milk. Tender coconut water is the treat of this day.

RAKSHA BANDHAN
The Festival of Brothers and Sisters This festival of love between brothers and sisters is a major Hindu festival which falls on the full moon day in the month of Shravana in north India. It ismarked by sisters tying a protective amulet on the wrist of their brothers for their long life and protection. Raksha literally means `protective` and bandhan means `binding`. Raksha Bandhan is the festival of tying the protective amulet and celebrates the love between a brother and sister. It falls on the day preceeding the full moon night in the month of Shravana. Sisters tie a rakhi on the wrists of their brothers and pray for their long and healthy life. The brothers on their part pledge to protect their sisters against any danger. The festival is restricted to north Indian households. Like any other festive day, on Raksha Bandhan too, houses are cleaned. The day begins with puja after the customary bath. Sisters then prepare a puja thali, which is a plate containing a betel leaf, betel nuts, rice grains, sandal paste, vermillion, some sweets and a rakhi. On the plate also reposes an oil lamp. The betel leaf and the betel nuts symbolise long life, the sandal paste bravery, and the diya symbolises the eternal nature of relationships between a brother and sister. The rice grains are a symbol of happiness and joy. The sister then performs the arati for the brother and applies a tilak of sandal paste or vermillion and rice grains on his forehead. She then ties the rakhi on his wrist and gives him some sweets to eat. Traditionally, the sister does not eat anything before tying the rakhi; she breaks her fast by accepting some sweets from her brother after the ceremony. The brother, on his part,gives her some money or a gift according to his means. In India the postal department works overtime to deliver rakhis on time. The market places too buzzes with activity a few days before the festival. Craftsmen summon up all their creativity in making rakhis, which are available in all shapes, sizes and colours. They are made as traditional silken threads and also as more elaborate flowers made of felt, sponge,coloured paper or embroidered cloth. The origin of this custom is found in the Puranas. However the recent form of this festival is different from what it used to be in the Puranic times. According to some scholars, the origin of this festival can be traced to social relations that formed the basis of astable society. Most ancient and medieval societies were founded on the principles of the protector and protected: a king (or government) and the subjects. The protector, however was not easily available and accessible and thus a ritualistic custom had to beinvented to reinforce the hierarchical ties between the two. Raksha Bandhan (according to the Puranas, Rakshikabandhanas) was one such custom, which helped in the smooth functioning of society. It was believed that on this day, one should have a protective amulet tied. Accordingly, Brahmins tied a rakshita on the wrist of people of all castes to the recitation of a protective mantra. And they were given a handsome donation for this service. The rakshita was believed to protect against any calamity or danger for a whole year. But like most other Hindu festivals, this one too had its roots in mythology from the Puranas. And because of its divine connotations, it was celebrated with vigour and enthusiasm. According to a legend in the Bhavishyottara Purana, Indra`s wife tied a Rakshikasutra on his arm which allowed him to emerge victorious against the asuras. The time of the year when this festival occurs is also apparently of great importance. During the rainy months, when this festival is observed, one is more prone to danger and natural calamities, by way of floods or snake bites. It was hence considered appropriate to have a `protective ceremony` during this time. Around the 17th century, however, the connotations of this festival changed to an expression of affection between brothers and sisters. The origin of this change is very difficult to trace. Many regional myths and folklore seem to have contributed to it.The central idea behind the festival, though, remained the same: it was stilla symbol of protection and affection. One of the most interesting and baffling myths comes from the Markandeya Purana. One day Yama, the god of death, and his sister Yami were walking down the avenues of Mrityuloka, the world of the dead. Suddenly, Yami felt sexually aroused, after being hit by the arrow of Kama who was up to his usual mischief. Not finding any man near her, she asked Yama to satisfy her desires. Enraged, Yama chastised her for her incestuous feelings and left immediately. Later Yama realised that Kama was responsible for this episode and cursed him. He stated that Kama would be unable to meet his wife for a year and would have to perform severe penanceto atone for his sin. Yama then tied arakshita around her wrist to protect her from all unwanted and undesired things. This myth provides a possible?clue to the change in this festival. The Dharmashastras explicitly forbid a sexual union between a brother and sister born of the same mother. Any such incident had to be followed by penance and punishment. In fact one of the tenets of later Hindu world was to stop incestuous relationships as they were thought to degrade the moral standard of society. This was extremely difficult, for the Puranic myths and legends seemed to legitimise incestuous relationships like Brahma marrying his daughter, Sarasvati; Krishna having a relationship with Radha, who was his aunt; and Shiva sleeping with his mother Shakti. To stop such practises in society, the Dharmashastras forbade any liasion between a brother and sister, mother and son, or father and daughter. And it was definitely this attempt that led to the popularity of Raksha Bandhan in its present form. There are many popular legends linked to this festival. According to a Rajasthani folktale, once upon a time there was a girl who had no brothers.On Raksha Bandhan, when the other girls were tying rakhis on the wrists of their brothers and offering them sweets, she felt very lonely. Weeping, she lamented that there was no one to accept her rakhi. Her mother tried to pacify her but she would not be consoled. Eventually she wiped away her tears. Taking a rakhi, she told her mother that she was going to offer it to Ganesha. She went to the temple and requested the god to accept her offer. After she had sat before him with folded hands for a long time, the god acquiesced and left his throne. The girl was delighted and invited Ganesha home. Seeing her daughter return with the god, her mother was speechless. She humbly offered whatever was in the house to her godly son. Satisfied Ganesha left, and the next morning when they awoke, the girl and her mother found themselves lying on golden cots with thick cushions, attended by angels in a palatial home. This story also illustrates another contemporary aspect of Raksha Bandhan: of adopting someone as a brother who is not related. It is quite common now adays for a girl to adopt a classmate in school or college as a brother by tying a rakhi on him. In a similar fashion, boys also adopt sisters. Although some of these relationships are established to enable young men and women to meet in a somewhat conservative society, many of these bonds are treated with great reverence by both parties all through their lives. One facet of the relationship between a brother and sister that has endured from ancient times is its sanctity. Indian history is littered with examples of brothers who honoured their rakhi pledge by sacrificing their lives. During the Mughal period, many Rajput princesses sent rakhis to Muslim rulers, whom they wanted to befriend and accept as protectors of their kingdom. Humanyun received a rakhi from Karmavati, the queen of Chittor, asking him to help her fight the king of Gujarat. To honour the rakhi, Humayun left his state to a rebellious chieftain, unsure of whether he would have a kingdom to return to. Today Raksha Bandhan has crossed the bonds of religion to emerge as a truly secular festival.

NAGA PANCHAMI
The Festival of the Snakes This popular Hindu festival, which falls on the fifth day of the bright fortnight in the month of Shravana, is observed to minimise the danger of snake bites in the monsoon months. It is marked by offering milk to the snakes and is most popular in south India. Naga literally means `serpent` and panchami is the `fifth day`. Naga Panchami is the festival of snakes celebrated on the fifth day of the bright fortnight in the month of Shravana. The festival falls during the rainy months and is believed to counter the increased possibility of a snake bite during this time. People visit temples specially dedicated to snakes and worship them. Shiva temples are also favoured places for veneration as snakes are considered dear to him. In South India, people craft images of snakes using cowdung on either side of the entrance to the house to welcome the snake god. Snakes are believed to like milk. As this is the day of the serpents, devotees pour milk into all the holes in the ground around the house or near the temple to propitiate them. Sometimes, a small pot of milk with some flowers is placed near the holes so that the snakes may drink it. If a snake actually drinks the milk, it is considered to be extremely lucky for the devotee. The festival is celebrated with much enthusiasm by all, especially women. As most rivers in India are in spate during the month of Shravana, poisonous snakes come out of their subterranean abodes and creep about in plenty all over the place. Many also float on flooded rivers running through the countryside. Mortality from snake bites must have been considerable to prompt people to worship the nagas to seek protection from them. Because of the fear, nagas were elevated to a divine status by the Hindus. The serpents are believed to have the capability to change their shape at will. When in human form, they are depicted as beautiful women and handsome men. According to a legend, Kadru, the mother of the nagas, once bet with her sister Vinata about the colour of the tail of Indra`s horse. She asserted that the tail was black even though the horse was absolutely white. According to Vinata however, the tail of the horse was as white as the rest of it. Kadru then asked her sons the nagas to coil around the white tail of the horse so that it appeared black. When they refused to participate in deceit, Kadru cursed them to be consumed by fire for disobeying her. Brahma however softened the curse and sent them to live in the netherworld. This happened on the fifth day in the month of Shravana and because the lives of the nagas was spared on this day, it is considered to be auspicious for snake worship. Naga Panchami is observed in different ways in different parts of India. It is one of the most ancient fasts, and finds mention in the Puranas. It is believed to be one of the most auspicious days of the entire year. According to the Bhavishya Purana, when men bathe the snake scalled Vasuki, Takshaka, Kaliya, Manibhadra, Airavata, Dhritarashtra, Karkotaka and Dhananjaya with milk on the fifth day of the bright fortnight of Shravana, they ensure freedom from danger for their families. Again, according to the Bhavishya Purana, worshippers should make gold, silver or clay images of snakes and worship them with kaner, jasmine and incense, feed Brahmins with ghee and payasa, and bathe the snake images with milk. This would bestow safety from snake bites on the worshippers. The Bhavishyottara Purana enjoins a person to make figures of cowdung and place them on both sides of his door. He should then worship them with curds, Durva tendrils, Kusha grass, sandalwood paste, flowers and presents of food. In some parts of southern India, figures of snakes are drawn with red sandalwood paste on wooden boards, or clay images of snakes coloured yellow or black are purchased. These are then worshipped and offered milk. Snake charmers wander about with all sorts of snakes, to which people offer milk. The snake charmers are paid some money for allowing this. Serpent worship developed gradually from the fear of serpents that must have taken a heavy toll on life, particularly at the beginning of the rainy season. In the Ashvalayana Grihyasutra, the Paraskara Grihyasutra and other Grihyasutras, a rite called Sarpabali or `offerings to serpents` was performed on the full moon night of Shravana. However the reason that it was moved from the full moon night to that of the fifth night of the bright fortnight is not apparent. It may be due to the slight change in the time of the onset of the rains.

RAMANAVAMI
The Birth of Lord Rama This nine-day Hindu festival, celebrated in the bright fortnight in the month of Chaitra, commemorates the birth of Lord Rama who was born to annihilate the demon King Ravana. Ramanavami celebrates the birth of Rama or Ramachandra. The festival is celebrated on the ninth day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Chaitra. In some parts of India, it is a nine-day festival, coinciding with the Vasanta Navaratri. It finds mention in ancient texts and literature. This is an occasion for great rejoicing especially for the Vaishnavas who celebrate it with due solemnity allover the country. The ancient texts lay stress on fasting on this day, and it is believed that anyone who does not will go to the worst hell. It is also said that Rama fulfills the wishes of all those who pray to him on this day. The public worship starts with morning ablutions, chanting Vedic mantras dedicated to Vishnu, and offering flowers and fruit to the god. People keep a fast throughout the day, breaking it only at midnight with fruit. In some parts of India, especially Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, public gatherings called satsangs are organised to commemorate the birth of Rama. Excerpts from the Ramacharitamanas, extoling the glory of Rama, are recited. People of all castes and creeds participate in these gatherings to listen to the stories and their explanations offered by the learned. Ramanavami brings together people of different castes. In earlier times, it was specified that this festival be celebrated by all, perhaps as away to release the social tension that existed due to the caste system. With the decline of the caste rigidness, this festival is now celebrated to sing the glory of a great mythical hero and is a source of divine inspirations. Ayodhya is the focus of great celebrations. A huge fair is organised for two days. Ratha yatras or `chariot processions` of Rama and his wife Sita, brother Lakshmana and devotee Hanuman, are taken out from many temples. Hanuman is worshipped for his unflinching devotion to Rama, and his worship forms an important part of the Ramanavami celebrations. People keep awake the whole of the nineth night, in anticipation of Rama`s birth. They sing devotional songs in praise of him and rock hisimage in cradles to celebrate his birth. There are also recitations from the Ramacharitamanas. A special puja is performed the next morning as thanksgiving. Though the public worship of Ramais of recent origin, his worship inside the home dates back to the pre-Christian era. Reference to keeping a strict fast on Ramanavami is found in the Kalika Purana. The vrata of Ramanavami was considered one of the five most important vratas of the ancient times. The Ramachandrika and Vratarka expressly state that everybody is obligated to observe this vrata as it is the sole means of worldly happiness and salvation. This includes members of the lowest castes and outcastes, who were ordinarily not permitted to observe social and religious rituals.

PONGAL
The Harvest Festival This three-day Hindu harvest festival falls in the month of Magha, corresponding with the solar equinox. Celebrated in the south, it is marked by the cooking of the rice from the first harvest after the long and arduous winter. This three-day harvest festival is celebrated every year in Magha, from the 13th to the 15th of January. The word `pongal` refers to the dish of sweet rice prepared on this occasion. The festival is celebrated widely in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The time of the festival is of great importance to all Hindus, a sit corresponds to the solar equinox when the days begin to lengthen and the nights begin to wane. According to Hindu mythology, this is when the day of the gods begins, after a six-month long night. The festival is spread over three days and is the most important and most fervently-celebrated harvest festival of south India. A special puja is performed on the first day of Pongal before the cutting of the paddy. Farmers worship the sun and the earth by anointing their ploughs and sickles with sandalwood paste. It is with these consecrated tools that the newly-harvested rice is cut. The first day is called Pongal Podigai or Bhogi Pongal and is a day of family feasting and enjoyment. Since the festival celebrates the harvest of the paddy crop, the newly harvested rice is first cooked on this day. The rice grains, along with sesame seeds, jaggery, chick peas, groundnuts and dried coconut, are put into an earthen pot filled with milk. This is boiled until some of the milk spills over, and the preparation is called `Pongal`. It is generally cooked at an auspicious hour, recommended by the priest, in the courtyard of the house. A portion of the cooked rice is offered to Ganesha, and the rest is shared by the family, neighbours and friends as consecrated food. As people greet each other, they ask paal pongita or `has the milk boiled over?`. Another ritual observed on this day is called Bhogi Mantalu, when useless household articles are thrown into a fire made of wood and cowdung cakes. Girls dance around the bonfire, singing songs in praise of the gods, the spring and the harvest. In Andhra Pradesh, in the morning the girls burn their old clothes and wear new ones after an oil massage and bath. Then follows Pongal Panai, a ritual in which the new earthenware pots are painted and decorated with turmeric, flowers and mango leaves. The second day is known as Surya Pongal, the day for the worship of Surya, and the rice cooked in milk and jaggery is offered him. When the foodis being cooked and when it boils over, people shout pongalo pongal loudly and many times to rejoice. On this festive day, a newly-married couple, symbolising freshness and joy, is presented with new clothes by the bride`s parents. The servants of the house are also given new clothes towear. Bathing in the sacred rivers during Pongal is believed to be extremely beneficial. Hence, devotees flock to Tanjavur in Tamil Nadu to bathe in the waters of the Kaveri, and to Tirunelveli, also in Tamil Nadu to bathe in the river Tamrapani. Bathingin the sea at Vedanaranyam in Tamil Nadu is also considered auspicious. The third day is known as Mattu Pongal or Gopuja, the day of Pongal for cows. It is marked by cattle worship. In earlier times, cattle formed the chief asset of an agriculturalist and it was only proper that their services were recognised and celebrated on this day.The cattle are given a ceremonial bath in the morning, their horns are cleaned, polished and painted, and then decorated with flowers. hey are then given Pongal to eat. Arati is performed on them, so as to ward off the evil eye. According to a legend, once Shiva asked his bull, Basava, to go to the earth and ask the mortals to have an oil massage and bath every day and to eat once a month. Inadvertently, Basava announced that everyone should eat daily and have an oil bath once a month. This mistake enraged Shiva who then cursed Basava, banishing him to live on the earth forever. He would have to plough the fields and help people produce more food. Thus the association of this day with cattle. A festival called Jallikathu is held in Madurai, Tiruchirapalli and Tanjavur, all in Tamil Nadu, on this day. Bundles of money are tied to the horns of ferocious bulls which the villagers try to retrieve. Everyone joins in the community meal, at which the food is made of the freshly harvested grain.This day is named and celebrated as Tamilian Tirunal in a fitting manner throughout Tamil Nadu. Muttu Pongal, also called Kanu Pongal, is also celebrated by sisters for the welfare of their brothers. This festival is reminiscent of Raksha Bandhan and Bhai Duja (see Diwali) of north India. A large banana (Musaparadisiaca) leaf is washed. It is then placed on the ground, next to the basilaltar in the courtyard. On it is placed a branch of the amla (Phylalnthus embelica) tree. On this leaf are placed at four corners, the leftovers of sweet pongal and the salty pongal called Vand Pongal, ordinary rice as well as coloured red and yellow, five betel leaves, two betel nuts, two pieces of sugarcane, turmeric leaves, and two or three ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) fruit. On this also reposes an oil lamp. In TamilNadu women perform this ritual before bathing in the morning. In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the festival starts after everyone has bathed. All the women, young and old, of the house assemble in the courtyard. The eldest married woman distributes a handful ofrice to all the others. The rice is placed in the centre of the banana leaf, while the women ask that the house and family of their brothers should prosper.Arati is performed for the brothers with tumeric water, limestone and rice, and this water is sprinkled on the rangoli in front of the house. Sisters apply a tilak on the foreheads of their brothers, and give them fruit, sweets, sesame seed and jaggery. The brothers thank their sisters for their good wishes and give them money and gifts. The celebration of this festival probably originated very early on. From the very beginning, the first agriculturalists realised the importance of a good crop, which sustained the entire clan. And since, to him, it depended on some supernatural element, he thought it fit to thank the gods after a good harvest. Further, it was believed that all that is new, a new crop, the first catch of a season, and the first born of a domestic animal, was sacred and hence not to be touched by man until certain sacramental ceremonies were performed. A part of the new was sacrificed to the gods or spirits, and one`s ancestors, and only then could it be consumed. In addition, it was realised that the fruit of the earth and animals for food should not be garnered until they were ready. This was emphasised by the community; and until a ritual was performed, nothing could be gathered, slain, oreaten. The harvest festival of Pongal symbolises the veneration of the first fruit. The crop is harvested only after a certain time of the year, and cutting the crop before that time is strictly prohibited. Even though Pongal was originallya festival for the farming community,today it is celebrated by all. In the south, all three days of Pongal are considered important. However, those south Indians who have settled in the north usually celebrate only the second day. Coinciding with Makara Sankranti and Lohri of the north, it is also called Pongal Sankranti. Though traditionally `pongal` is cooked using the newly harvested grain, nowadays it is not easily available. Therefore families not directly involved in agriculture cook `pongal` using old rice, to give thanks in the traditional way.

ONAM
The Harvest Festival This four-day harvest festival of the Hindus falls in the month of Chingam, marking the advent of spring. It also celebrates the yearly visit of King Mahabali to Kerala. One of the main events of this festival is the snake boat races. Onam is a four-day harvest festival celebrated in Kerala. It falls in the Malyali month of Chingam, marking the end of the life-giving monsoon and the advent of spring. Mythologically, the event celebrates the annual visit of King Mahabali. According to a legend in Vishnu Purana, Mahabali was a king, and through severe penance had gained dominion over the three worlds. He was an able and just ruler and his people adored him. The gods however, shorn of their powers and deprived of their abode and the spoils from sacrifices performed on earth, asked Vishnu for help. He agreed, and took his fourth incarnation of Vamana, the dwarf. Accordingly, he was born to Sage Kashyapa and his consort Aditi. When he attained maturity, he went to?the court of Mahabali, who was in the midst of a sacrifice. The virtuous Balisaw the Brahmin and immediately asked him what he desired. Vamana begged for as much land as he could encompass with three steps. Bali agreed to the humble request but as soon as the sacrificial water was poured on Vamana`s hands, he became a giant. With one step he covered the earth, with the second step the heavens. As there was no place to claim his third step, Bali offered his head as a resting ground. Vishnu put his foot on Bali`s head and pushed him down to the nether world. However, inrecognition of his virtues, Vishnu made him king of the Asuras. At Bali`s request, Vishnu allowed him to return to earth to visit his people once a year. It is believed that Mahabali visits his people in Kerala during Onam. It has now been historically established that a king named Mahabali ruled over the region of modern Kerala around the 4th century AD. He was a powerful and just kingand his dynasty ruled over Kerala for about 150 years. The return of their erstwhile king is celebrated by the Keralites with tremendous enthusiasm and vigour. Kerala wears a festive look during these four days. Every house is cleaned and decorated. Doorways are adorned with rangoli and flowers. Pukkalam, or floral decorations consisting of garlands and flower petals, are an essential inclusion in all decorations since traditionally, flowers are used to welcome people. Flowers are also symbolic of innocence and freshness which the season brings withit. Every day the old flowers are replaced with new ones. According to alocal belief, the better the house is decorated, the greater the chance of King Mahabali entering it. Here Bali signifies the harvest, and the visit of Mahabali actually symbolises a good harvest. As Kerala is still largely agricultural, people celebrate this event with enthusiasm. Sumptuous feasts are also prepared on all days during Onam. Although the festival centers around the myth of Mahabali and Vishnu, it also celebrates the advent of the harvest season. It is not just the commemoration of the return of a great king who bestowed prosperity and happiness on his people, but also the veneration of the harvest that indicates wealth and joy. On all the four days,the family prays to Vishnu and sings songs in praise of King Mahabali who, through his humility, won Vishnu`s honour and respect. Women sing and dance in the evenings. Vallom Kallies or the snake boat races form an important part of Onam celebrations. Some of the sites famous for these races are Aranmula on the Pamba river in the Kuttanad region,Papiyad near Quilon, and Thayathangadi near Kottayam. The slim boats are about 100 feet long with a capacity of about 150 men. Black in colour, the boats are usually made of anjili (Artocarpus hirsuta), but sometimes teak and kadamb (Nauclea cadamba) wood is also used. Both ends of the boat curl out of the water to about 15 to 20 feet. The curled end sare shaped like cobra hoods and it is from this shape that boat has derived its name. The boats are made by traditional boat builders who inherit this art from their fathers and pass it down to their sons. Everything is handmade and crafted with great care. The boats are ornately designed and decorated with green and scarlet silk umbrellas; their number denotes the affluence of the family to which they belong. Gold coins, ornaments and tassels are hung from the umbrellas. Preparations for the race begin days in advance. Many practice sessions are organised which cease two days before the race. The boats are launched into the water a day before the race, which is held on the third of the four days of Onam. On the day of the race, the boats are smeared with coconut oil to smooth their passage through the water. Just before the race begins, priests perform a small puja to Vishnu and Mahabali and confer blessings on the boat and the boatmen. Flowers are offered to the gods and then placed at the helm of the boat as a sign of good luck. Each long, graceful, snake-like boat is rowed by 100 oarsmen to the beat and rhythm of cymbals, drums, and songs. The winner of this race is bestowed many presents. In the evening, girls dance around the traditional brass lamp, with much rejoicing. According to a legend related to the origin of these boats, once some bandits robbed a small boat carrying offerings to a Krishna temple. Krishna appeared before the devotee in adream and advised him to build alarger boat which, when rowed by 100to 150 oarsmen, would glide swiftly and outstrip any pirate. And so the speedy or snake boat was designed.

BAISAKHI
The Harvest Festival Baisakhi, the harvest festival, falls on April 13. Celebrated in Punjab and Haryana, this festival also commemorates the formation of the order of the Khalsa. Baisakhi is a derivative of Vaishakha. After harvesting the winter crop, the farmers of the northern states of Punjab and Haryana celebrate the beginning of another year. The day coincides with the solar equinox on the 13th of April. There is boisterous dancing and loud joyous singing as the traditional folk dances of Punjab, called the Gidda and Bhangra, are performed. It is also the anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa Pantha.People collect in the evening around abon fire to celebrate the harvest. History has recorded the execution of GuruTeg Bahadur, the ninth guru of the Sikhs, by the Mughals, on November 11, 1675. In revolt against this injustice, his son Guru Govind Singh, who was also the tenth guru, was compelled to take up arms. He selected the auspicious day of Baisakhi to initiate this important task, by forming the order of the Khalsa. On the13th of April in 1699, at a meeting in atown named Anandpur in Punjab, the guru called upon his people to come forward to sacrifice themselves for the good of the clan. Pin-drop silence met his appeal. He repeated the call, with the same response. The third time, a thirty-year-old man named Daya Ram Khatri stood up and volunteered. The guru took Daya Ram to a tent nearby and returned alone after some time, his sword dripping blood. He repeated his call for volunteers four more times.The others who offered themselves were Dharm Das, a Jat from Delhi, Mokhan Chand, a washerman from Dwarka, Sahib Chand a barber from Bidar, and Himmat Rai, a water carrier from Jagannatha. Each of them went with him to the tent and everytime he returned alone with his bloodied sword. The guru went to the tent yet again, this time for a long time. He reappeared followed by the five men, clad in saffron-coloured garments. The crowd was astonished for it had assumed them to be dead. They sat on the dais made for the occasion, while the guru prepared water to bless them. In an iron vessel, he stirred the batasha that his wife, Mata Jitoji had put into water, with a sword called Khanda Sahib, while verses from their scriptures were recited by the congregation. The water was now considered the sacred nectar of immortality called amrita. It was firstgiven to the five volunteers, then drunk by the guru and later distributed to the crowd. All those present, irrespective of caste or creed, became members of the Khalsa Pantha. This was also agreat step in national integration because society at that time was divided on the basis of religion, caste and social status. The concept of forming a group where the origin of the individual became irrelevant was considered a very radical step. Those who had offered their lives were christened the Panch Pyare. They were directed by the guru to wear five K`s: Kesh or long hair, Kangha or comb, Kripan or dagger, Kachha or shorts and a Kara or bracelet. He discontinued the tradition of gurus and asked all Sikhs to accept the Grantha Sahib as their eternal guide. He urged them to come to him with their hair and beards unshorn to get baptised by the sword. The suffix Singh derived from the Sanskrit word singha meaning `lion`, was added to the name of all male Sikhs, while the women were to call themselves Kaur, assistants to the Singh. To pay tribute to this event, prayer meetings are organised in gurdwaras across the country. The main celebration however, takes place in the gurdwara at Anandpur Sahib, where the order was formed. At about 4 o`clock in the morning, the Guru Grantha Sahib is ceremonially taken out from its resting chambers. After asymbolic bath with milk and water, it is placed on its throne. Priests called the Panch Pyare then chant the verses that were recited by the original Panch Pyare when the order was created. Called the Panch Bani, these prayers include the Jabji Sahib, Jap Sahib, Sudha Savahiye, Chow Payee Sahiband Anandpur Sahib. While the Panch Bani is being chanted, amrita is prepared in an iron vessel, as was done by Guru Govind Singh. Devotees sip the amrita five times and vow to work for the Khalsa Panth. At noon, after the ardas, the Karah Prasad is offered to the guru for his blessings. It is then distributed to the congregation. They eat the prasad, before proceeding to participate in the guru ka langar. Believers perform kar seva. Shabads and kirtans are sung all day long to honour Guru Govind Singh and the beloved five, the founders of the Khalsa Panth.

MAKARA SANKRANTI
Return of the Sun to the North Makara Sankranti celebrates the entry of the sun into the Tropic of Capricorn in the month of Magha. Makara literally means `Capricorn` and sankranti is the day when the sun passes from one sign of the zodiac to the next. The sankranti of any month is considered auspicious as it signifies a fresh start. However Makara Sankranti is celebrated in the month of Magha when the sun passes through the winter solstice, from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn. According to Hindu mythology, one `human` year of 365 days is equivalent to one day and night of the gods. Makara Sankranti marks the beginning of the day of the gods, which is equivalent to six solar months and is believed to be the auspicious part of the year. The previous six months, considered the night and therefore symbolic of darkness and evil, are inauspicious. Makara Sankranti is believed to be the time when Surya rides his chariot, drawn by seven horses, from the southern skies to the north. For the pastoral people therefore, it is of prime importance for it signifies the end of the winter and the `turning back` of the sun to the north. This festival has been celebrated for thousands of years. Initially, this was probably a festival celebrated in the cold climate, when people prayed for the warmth of the sun. In all likelihood, the Aryans celebrated it, and continued to do so after migrating to India. Today, Makara Sankranti is celebrated throughout India as a harvest festival. It is a way of giving thanks to the elements of nature that help man. This is the period when the winter recedes, paving the way for the summer. It is the time the farmers bring home their harvest. In the coastal regions, it is a harvest festival dedicated to Indra. In Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, it is celebrated as a three-day harvest festival Pongal. In Assam, the festival is celebrated as Bhogali Bihu, and in Punjab it is called Lohri. In North India, a ritual bath in the river is important on this day. In fact, bathing is considered mandatory on this day, and according to a popular local belief in the hills of Uttar Pradesh, one who does not bathe on Makara Sankranti is born a donkey in his next birth. The belief probably originated in cold climates to compel some of the more reluctant people to observe certain rules of hygiene. Khichiri is eaten and given away as charity, and some call the festival Khichiri Sankranti. People also distribute rice and lentils to the poor and needy. In Maharashtra, a special dish called tilgul, or laddoos made of jaggery and sesame seed, the chief crop of the season, is popular. A big fair is held at the confluence of the Ganga, the Yamuna and the Sarasvati rivers at Triveni in Allahabad(Uttar Pradesh) on this occasion. Being the month of Magha, this fair is also called Magha Mela. Apart from Triveni, ritual bathing also takes place at many places like Haridvar and Garh Mukteshwar in Uttar Pradesh, and Patna in Bihar. Since it is also the season to fly kites, the evening sky is awash with colourful kites of all shape sand sizes. Several kite competition sare held in various localities.