Traditions and culture of India

2010-09-26T08:52:00.000-07:00

Purana Qila

When the second Mughal emperor Humayun decided to make a city of his own he decided on the site of the ancient city of Indraprastha. Humayun was quite a scholar with a fine grasp on such matters and so it is certain that the site was chosen deliberately. When his Sher Shah Suri overthrew him, he destroyed most of Dinpanah (refuge of the faithful) as the city of Humayun was called to make way for his own Dilli Sher Shahi or Shergarh. Incidentally, Humayun was probably the only emperor in history who built a city in Delhi and did not give it his own name – this was typical of Humayun's rather sophisticated and dreamy character.

In plan the Old fort, now simply called Purana Qila by Delhites, is irregularly orbital. The walls of the immense Qila tower down on the road that takes one to Pragati Maidan from the height of 18m, and run on for about 2km. It has three main gates – the Humayun darwaza, Talaqi darwaza and Bara darwaza (which one uses to enter the fort today). The double-storeyed gates are quite huge and are built with red sandstone. of all the gates entry was forbidden from Talaqi (forbidden) darwaza, the northern gate.

2010-09-26T08:48:00.000-07:00

Golconda Fort

The Golconda Fort is located about 11 Kms away, on the Western outskirts of Hyderabad city. It is located on a granite hill having a height of 120m.
Before the advent of Hyderabad, Deccan was ruled from Golconda fort. It was earlier established by the Kakatiya's in the 13th century and the existing structure was constructed by the Qutub Shahi kings. It was renovated by the first three Qutub Shahi kings, over a span of 62 years.

Golconda is also known as Shepherd's Hill" or "Golla Konda", in Telugu. According to a legend, a shepherd boy found an idol on the rocky hill called 'Mangalavaram'. This news reached the Kakatiya king, who was then ruling Golconda. He ordered the construction of a mud fort around the holy spot. Later, the fort was expanded by the Qutub Shahi kings into a huge structure made of granite.

The fort of Golconda is known for its magical acoustic system. The highest point of the fort is the 'Bala Hissar', which is located a kilometer away. The palaces, factories, water supply system and the famous 'Rahban' cannon, within the fort are some of the major attractions.

Gwalior fort

2010-09-26T08:33:00.000-07:00

Gwalior fort

Pearls in the necklace of the castles of Hind, this sprawling fort is the witness to glorious battles and the rule of the Maharajas of Gwalior.

The fort is located at Gopalchal and has earned the reputation of North and Central India's most impregnable fort. It is one of the most invincible forts of India and has an impressive citadel. It was constructed on the hill of sandstone and it towers 10 km from the plain. This fascinating fort is one of its kind and you should make sure that you view the best of Gwalior fort.

Junagarh Fort

Situated adjacent to the public park, its turrets pointing skywards, Junagarh fort is a magnificent sight to behold. It was constructed between 1589 and 1594 by Raja Rai Singh, a general in the army of the Mughal emperor Akbar. It was in 1585 that an old extant Mughal farman (decree) refers to Rai Singh of Bikaner, upon whom Akbar conferred the district of Bhatner. It was the next year that Rai Singh ordered work on the ‘great jewel of Bikaner’, the Junagarh fort. Work finally began in 1589 when the king sent instructions to that effect from his camp at Burhanpur to his minister Karam Chand. Finished five years later, its battlements jutted out proudly, although they were untested.

The fort is beautifully embellished with Rajput paintings, mirror-work, and lacquer-work. Lines of windows and balconies impart a harmonious domestic character to the austere strength of the structure. You need to take a recce of the fort and feel the atmosphere to get an idea of the indolent lifestyle of the Rajput royalty, in medieval times.The regalia and opulence of the palaces will take your breath away.

2009-11-24T01:21:00.000-08:00

Chittorgarh Fort

In the pages of history Chittorgarh holds a proud place and regarded as the symbol of Rajput chivalry, resistance and bravery. The Chittorgarh fort is situated 175 km to the east of Udaipur and is named after Chitrangad Maurya. Chittorgarh covers an area seven mile covering 700 acres of land with its fortifications, palaces, temples and towers. The fortress of Chittorgarh epitomizes the romance and chivalry of the Rajput tradition.

The famous Chittorgarh fort is situated on a 180 m high hill that rises swiftly from the plains. The road leads through seven gates namely Padan Pol, Bhairon Pol, Hanuman Pol, Ganesh Pol, Jorla Pol, Lakshman Pol, to the main gate, Rampol. In between the second and the third gate there are two Chhatris or cenotaphs, built in honor of Jaimull and Patta, the heroes of 1568 AD siege by Emperor Akbar. The main gate of the fort is called the Surajpol (the Gate of Sun). Inside the Chittorgarh fort there are many palaces like the Rana Kumbha Palace, the Fateh Prakash Palace, the Tower of Victory and Rani Padmini's Palace. All these structures are significant for their Rajput architectural features.

The most imposing structures inside the Chittorgarh fort are the "Kirti Stambh" and the "Vijay Stambh". The "Kirti Stambh" was built by Maharana Kumbha in 1440 AD to celebrate his victory over Mohammad Khalji. The pedestal of the tower is 10 ft high and the tower stands at a height of 122 ft and is 30 ft wide at the base. The tower is nine storeyed and is adorned with sculptures of Hindu deities and stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The tower provides a breathtaking view of the city. There is a huge complex of Jain temples within the fort.

Indian forts

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Of all the Indian monuments, forts and palaces are most fascinating. Most of the Indian forts were built as a defense mechanism to keep the enemy away. The state of Rajasthan is home to numerous forts and palaces. Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh are also not far behind. In fact, whole India is dotted with forts of varied sizes. The magnificent forts and palaces of Rajasthan were built during the medieval period. The notable feature about each of the forts and palaces is the exquisite carving work that has survived till date and still receives appreciation from people worldwide.

These magnificent forts can not be described in words as they will look too small in front of splendor of forts that beautify India. Some prominent forts of Rajasthan are Amber fort, Chittorgarh fort, Jaisalmer fort, Lohagarh fort, Bikaner fort and Jaigarh fort. Delhi, the capital of India also boasts of some great forts. Some of the notable forts of Delhi are the Red fort, Purana Quila and the Tughlaqabad fort. These grand forts clearly depict the glory of Indian majestic past. There are many other forts of importance in India. Some of the most notable are the Red fort, Agra, the Gwalior fort and the Junagarh fort

Agra Fort

The majestic Agra fort was built by the great Mughal emperor, Akbar in 1565-75. The Agra fort contains numerous impressive structures like the Jahangir Mahal, Khas Mahal, Diwan-i-Khass, Diwan-i-Am, Machchhi Bhawan and Moti Masjid. The Agra fort is enclosed by a double battlemented massive wall of red sandstone. This wall is about 2 km in perimeter and is interrupted by graceful curves and lofty bastions. Many of the buildings inside the Taj Mahal were pulled down by Shah Jahan, who erected some new ones. The Agra fort has four gates, of which the Delhi Gate is the most impressive.

The fort of Agra stands about 2 km from the Taj Mahal on the same bank of River Yamuna. The Agra fort stretches for almost 2.5 km. At present the visitors are allowed to enter the Agra fort from the Amar Singh Gate. The Amar Singh Gate leads to the courtyard. The magnificent Diwan-I-Am (Hall of Public Audience) is on the right side. A little further lay the royal pavilions (containing Nagina Masjid and Mina Masjid), palaces (Macchi Bhavan, Khas Mahal, Shish Mahal, Shah Jahani Mahal) and the Zenana Mina Bazaar. It is interesting to note that to rooms cool, the walls were made hollow and filled with running water. A very nice view of the Taj Mahal can be had from the balconies in the pavilions.

Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the Agra fort by his son Aurangzeb. Shah Jahan spent his last days in the Musamman Burj of the Agra fort. The Musamman Burj is located on the left of the Khaas Mahal. It is a beautiful octagonal tower with an open pavilion. With its openness, elevation and the benefit of cool evening breezes flowing in off the Yamuna River. From the Musamman Burj one has the best view of the Taj Mahal.

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Vivekananda Rock

Located in the midst of the ocean, just 400 meters from Kanyakumari, is the magnificent Vivekananda Rock Memorial. This colossal structure was built in the year 1970, under the guidance of Shri Eknath Ranade. The Vivekananda rock temple is dedicated to one of the greatest spiritual philosophers of India, Swami Vivekananda. It is said that Swami Vivekananda meditated here before setting out on one of the most crucial religious campaigns in India in 1892. The idea of building Vivekananda Memorial Rock temple was conceptualized on his birth centenary in the year 1962.

Vivekananda Rock Memorial was built with a blend of traditional as well as contemporary architectural styles of India. A life size statue of Swami Vivekananda has been set up inside the memorial. The rock has always been considered as holy and according to Hindu mythology, Goddess Devi Kumari has blessed the rock with the touch of her sacred feet. It is thus known as 'Sripada Parai'. In fact, there is a projection on the rock that resembles a human foot and is brownish in color, which is regarded as Sri Padam.

The memorial has two main structures known as the Shripada Mandapam and the Vivekananda Mandapam. The Shripada Mandapam has the main sanctum sanctorum surrounded by an outer platform. The Vivekananda Mandapam has a meditation hall known as Dhyana Mandapam. Visitors can sit, relax and meditate over here. The atmosphere here is very calm and serene. A statue of Swami Vivekananda can be seen here. From the rock, one can check out the breath taking view of the merging of the three major water bodies namely Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean.

2009-11-24T01:10:00.000-08:00

Victoria Memorial Hall

The Victoria Memorial was built to commemorate the peak of the British Empire in India. The Victoria Memorial, conceived by Lord Curzon, represents the architectural climax of Kolkata city. Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy specified its classical style but the actual plan of Victoria Memorial was laid down by the well-known architect, Sir William Emerson. The Victoria Memorial blends the best of the British and Mughal architecture. The Victoria Memorial hall was built with white Makrana marbles. The Prince of Wales laid the foundation stone of Victoria Memorial in 1906 and it was inaugurated in 1921 in memory of Queen Victoria. The Victoria Memorial is 338 by 228 feet and a height of 184 feet.

Today the Victoria Memorial Hall is a museum having an assortment of Victoria memorabilia, British Raj paintings and other displays. As night descends on Calcutta, the Victoria Memorial Hall is illuminated, giving it a fairy tale look. It is interesting to note that the Victoria Memorial was built without British government funds. The money required for the construction of the stately building, surrounded by beautiful gardens over 64 acres and costing more than 10 million was contributed by British Indian states and individuals who wanted favors with the British government. At the top of the Victoria Memorial is a sixteen foot tall bronze statue of victory, mounted on ball bearings. It rotates with wind.

At present the Victoria Memorial has notable collection of weapons, sculptors, paintings, maps, coins, stamps, artifacts, textiles etc. The Royal gallery in Victoria Memorial has portraits of the Queen and Prince Albert. There are numerous paintings, illustrating events from Victoria's life. Another remarkable peace in Victoria Memorial is a painting by the Russian artist Vasseli Verestchagin, portraying the state entry of the Prince of Wales in Jaipur in the year 1876. In the post independence period a new addition was made to the Victoria Memorial. It was the addition of the National leaders' gallery with the portraits and relics of the freedom fighters.

2009-11-24T01:05:00.000-08:00

India gate

India Gate, situated on the Raj Path in New Delhi, was built to memorialize the 70,000 Indian soldiers who lost their lives during the First World War, fighting for the British army. The India Gate also bears the name of 13,516 British and Indian soldiers killed during the third Afghanistan war, 1919. The foundation stone of India Gate was laid down by the Duke of Connaught in the year 1921 and was designed by the famous British architect, Edward Lutyens. It was Lord Irwin who dedicated India Gate to the nation in 1931. Later, another memorial, Amar Jawan Jyoti or the eternal soldier's flame was added to the monument. The Amar Jawan Jyoti is burning since 1971 to remind the nation of soldiers who laid down their lives in the Indo-Pakistan war of 1971.

The India Gate is 42 m tall and the entire arch stands on a low base of red stone and rises in stages to a huge molding. From the base of the arch of India Gate one can have a magnificent view of the Rashterapati Bhavan (the President's house). At the top of India Gate, on both sides is inscribed INDIA. There is a vast expanse of lush green lawns surrounding the India Gate. India Gate is certainly one of the most visited spots of Delhi. The lawns of India Gate bustle with people, particularly during summer evenings. The lawns of India Gate house the famous boat club and a children's park. It lends more beauty to India Gate.

2009-11-24T01:01:00.000-08:00

Charminar

Charminar is a monument located in the City of Hyderabad which is the capital city of the State of Andhra Pradesh in South India. The Charminar (Urdu: "Four Minars") monument, built in the center of Hyderabad by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in 1591 as a commemoration of the eradication of a plague.Charminar is one of the most important landmarks of the city. The monument was built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in 1591 to commemorate the eradication of plague, shortly after he had shifted his capital from Golconda to what now is known as Hyderabad. Legends tell that the emperor Quli Qutb Shah prayed for the end of plague and took the vow to build a masjid on that very place.
He ordered the construction of the masjid which became popular as Charminar because of its four characteristic minarets. The top floor of the four-storeyed structure has a masjid which has 45 covered prayer spaces and some open space to accommodate more people in Friday prayers.

Charminar structure

The Charminar is a beautiful and impressive square monument, with each side measuring 20 m, and each of the edges having a pointed high minaret. It derives its name from these four gracefully carved minarets which soar to a height of 48.7 m above the ground, commanding the landscape for miles around. Charminar literally means 'Four Spires' (Char (Hindi) = four, Minar (Arabic manara) = spire/tower). Each minaret has four storeys, each looking like a delicately carved ring around the minaret. Every side opens into a plaza through giant arches, which overlook four major thoroughfares and dwarf other features of the building except the minarets.

There are two galleries within the Charminar, one over another, and above those a terrace that serves as a roof, bordered with a stone balcony. It is vaulted underneath and appears like a dome. There is a large table raised seven or eight feet from the ground with steps to go up to it. Nothing in the town seems so lovely as the outside of that building. A thriving market still lies around the Charminar attracting people and merchandise of every description. In its heyday, the Charminar market had some 14,000 shops, a unique conglomeration of a grand oriental bazaar. The whole market around the Charminar is crowded with shops which sell glass bangles in rainbow colours.

Unlike Taj Mahal, the fluted minarets of Charminar are built into the main structure. Inside the four-storied minarets 149 winding steps guide the visitor to the upper floor, the highest point one can reach, and providing a panoramic view of the city. There are 45 prayer spaces with a large open space in front to accommodate more for Friday prayers.

Built with granite and lime mortar, Charminar is a fine example of the Cazia style of architecture. The Charminar looks spectacular particularly in the nights when it is illuminated. This graceful monument is very beautiful on the inside, and is particularly known for its carvings and moldings. The painstaking details result in a graceful, lace-like look.

Nalanda Ajanta Caves- Bihar

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Buddhist monuments like the stupas are among the earliest monuments to be found in India, going back to 230-500 B.C. At Nalanda, southeast of Patna in Bihar, excavations have revealed temples, monasteries, cells and libraries, and statues. Near Aurangabad in Maharashtra, about 30 rock-caves famous as the Ajanta caves contain delicate carvings and frescoes, which are still colourful. At Bodha Gaya in Bihar, a decorative railing and a stupa portray medieval architectural styles.
At Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh, Emperor Ashoka, who had embraced and promoted Buddhism, had raised the first of the famous Ashokan pillars. Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh has a massive stupa with marvellously carved gateway and railings. Kushinagara in Uttar Pradesh is another site where Ashoka had erected a pillar and constructed a stupa. The principal stupa has a large hemispherical dome topped with a small balcony surrounded by three umbrellas.
A stone casing was added to the original structure sometime later, and two smaller stupas and an impressive carved gateway erected. It was visited by Huien Tsang in the 7th century! In Ladakh, there are gumphas or monasteries, for example, at Leh, Lamayarn, and Spituk.

Agra Fort- Agra

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Built principally as a military establishment by Akbar in 1565, the red sandstone Agra fort was partially converted into a palace during Shah Jahans time. Though the principle structure was built by Akbar many more additions were made by his grandsons. This massive fort is 2.5 kms long and is considered as the predecessor of the Delhi Red fort. The colossal walls are 20feet high and the whole fort is encircled by a fetid moat. Amar Singh gate towards the south is the only entry point in the fort. The building and structures inside the fort gives an impression of a city within the city. Many of the building inside the fort is now closed for the public. The marble pearl mosque inside the fort is one of the most stunningly beautiful mosques in India. Diwan-i- Am : This structure was originally made out of wood but was later constructed in the present form by Shah Jahan. The throne room bears a clear influence of Shah Jahan style with the inlaid carving and panels of marble with floral motifs. This hall of public hearing is the place where the Emperor heard the petition’s of the public and met the officials. The hall of public hearing gives way to the Nagina Mosque and the Ladies bazaar where only ladies merchants were allowed to sell items to the Moghal ladies. Diwan-E-Khas : This was the hall of private audience. This hall was also added by Shah Jahan. Thsi hall is divided into two rooms connected by three arches and it was here that the famous peacock throne was kept before being shifted to Delhi by Aurangzeb and finall carried away to Iran. Octagonal Tower : This exquisitely carved tower is close to the Diwan-i- Khas. It was here that Shah Jahan spent last seven years of his life imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb. The tower was considered to provide one of the best views of the Taj but today the pollution has reduced the visiblity. The tower is in bad shaoe today but blank spaces and the empty inlay works give an idea how this building must have looked in those days. Jehangir Palace : This was built by Akbar for his favourite son Jehangir to provide him with the comfort and luxury inside the fort.

Qutub Minar- Delhi

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15 km south of New Delhi, the Qutab Minar rises high into the firmament over looking an entire area - named Mehrauli which is dotted with ruins of Islamic monuments. The minar or tower itself is 73 metres high, its diameter 15 metre at the base and just 2 and a ½ metres at the top. It has five distinct storeys, the first three are of red sandstone, and the fourth and fifth of marble and sandstone. Each storey has a projecting balcony.
The ornamental work on the tower only reinforces the impressive stature of the tower. It was started in 1193, after the last Hindu kingdom in Delhi fell to the Afghan invader Qutab-ud-din. The Qutab Minar complex contains Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, the first mosque to be built in India. It was surrounded in early 13th century by a cloistered court by Iltutmish, and in early 14th century by a red sandstone gateway( the Alai Darwaza) by Ala-ud-din. To the north of the Qutab Minar and the mosque, stands an unfinished minar 27 metres high, This is the Ala-i Minar, begun by Ala-ud-din but abandoned after his death. Beside the Ala-i Darwaza lies the tomb of Imam Zamin and Iltutmish"s tomb is by the north-west of the mosque. In the courtyard of the mosque stands a 7-metre-high iron pillar, which is one of the wonders of India. It was brought from elsewhere and erected there by the Hindu king Chandra Varman in the 5th century.
Its origins may have been in the Gupta period. Indications that it had once been crowned by the figure of the mythical bird Garuda who carries the Hindu god Vishnu on his back suggest that the pillar had originally belonged to a temple dedicated to a Vishnu temple. The iron in the pillar is of such inexplicable purity that it has not rusted in all these centuries. It testifies to the fact that ancient India had acquired great metallurgical skills. Most everyone who visits the Qutab Minar tries to encircle the iron pillar with one"s back to the pillar. It is supposed to be wish-fulfilling.

Taj Mahal - Agar

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Typical frontal views of the Taj fail to capture its full magic the magic that has inspired many , including Rabindranath Tagore to poetry. The 17th century Mughal emperor Shah Jehan fell in love with Mumtaz Mahal at first sight and waited full five years for her hand to be granted to him in marriage. In their 19 years of married life, she bore him 14 children(of which only 6 survived to adulthood, and only 3 to old age), before dying in childbirth in 1632, the fourth year of Shah Jehan"s reign. Devastated with grief, Shah Jehan determined to build the world"s most beautiful mausoleum for her. For two decades, workers from all over India and also from Central Asia, worked on it. The main architect was Isha Khan of Iran, but experts included Austin of Bordeaux, France and Veroneo of Venice, Italy. The Taj Mahal complex in Agra is situated on the bank of river Yamuna, and is approached through a high red sandstone gateway with Koranic inscriptions. The gardens, walks, watercourse, fountains and subsidiary structures of the complex are dominated and unified by the multi-domed Taj Mahal itself which stands on a raised marble platform with four tall but purely decorative minarets at four of its corners. The actual tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan are in the basement while in the main chamber, there are false tombs surrounded by lace-like marble screens. The marble all around is inlaid with semi-precious stones in the pietra dura process. From every view , in every weather , in dawn and dusk, in nights moonlit and moonless, the Taj is an unique experience.

The Golden Temple - Amritsar

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The most famous of Sikh monuments is the Golden Temple at Amritsar. It contains the Darbara Sahib, a hallowed place built on a small island in the middle of a pool. Erected at the end of the 16th century, it was ornamented and covered with gilt in 1802 by Ranjit Singh.It contains no shrine. It is the sacred book Guru Granth Sahib that is in the seat of honour. Patna Sahib, Sri Kesargarh Sahib (Anandpur, Punjab), Sri Huzur Sahib, and Damdama Sahib (Nanded, Maharashtra) are other such holy and important places.

Konark- Orrisa

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Konarak is a small coastal place about 33 km from Puri and 64 km from Bhubaneswar, the capital of the State of Orissa. Its famous Suryamamndir ( Sun Temple) was built in the 13th century and lay half-hidden under the sands till 1904.The temple, built to commemorate a military victory, was conceived as a chariot for Sura, the Sun God. There are 24 gigantic carved-stone wheels around the base of the temple, and 7 horses pulling at it.
All over the huge temple is laden with carvings, sculptures, figures and bas-reliefs. The main entrance is guarded by two stone lions crushing elephants. Horses strain on either side as steps rise to the main entrance. There are three images of Surya , so constructed as to catch the sun at dawn, noon and sunset. Between the main steps and the entrance enclosure, there is a dancing hall. Elephants and horses trampling on men add to the awful majesty of the temple.
Beginning at the base of the temple, and going up to the walls and roof is a continuous series of carvings, some minute and some gigantic, mostly of men and women in erotic postures. There is said to be a philosophical basis for having so much eroticism displayed on the external surface of the temple, especially at the base and the middle. It is that Spiritualism is at the core and on higher levels

Basilica Of Bom Jesus - Goa

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The Basilica of Bom Jesus was started in 1594 and completed in 1605.A simple monument, not plastered on the outside, it has richly gilded altars. It contains the tomb and mortal remains of St.Francis Xavier who had first arrived in Goa in 1542 to spread Christianity in the Portugese colonies of the east. Even though he had died on 3 December , 1552 in Sancian Island near China, his body was found undecayed in 1554, when it was sent to Goa. After he was canonised, his body was removed to the Basilica of Bom Jesus. Every year a festival is held in Goa on the anniversary of St Xavier"s death, and thousands of pilgrims flock to the Basilica. Every 10 years, the body is exposed to public view on the death anniversary, the next occasion being 2004.The Duke of Tuscany underwrote the construction of the Tomb of St Francis, and Giovanni Batista Foggini, the sculptor from Florence, executed it.10 years were required for its completion, which came in 1698. The bodily remains of St Xaviers are in a silver casket(once, a bejeweled one). Surrounding walls contain murals depicting scenes from St Xavier"s missionary journeys. Next to the Basilica. There is the Professed House, a two-storeyed laterite building covered with lime plaster. The Jesuits opposed its construction but it was completed in 1585. Partially burnt in 1663, it was rebuilt in 1783

Dhamekh Stupa- Sarnath- Bhiar

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Ancient Sarangnath or Sarnath also known as Mrigadava (deer park), only 8 kms. away from Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. He set the great "Wheel of Law" (Dharmachakra) in motion here, more than 2,500 years ago by revealing to the world his Eight fold path - the path to end sorrow, achieve inner peace, enlightenment and ultimate Nirvana. The region once housed 3,000 monks.
Remains of the Dharmarajika Stupa set up by Asoka; his Sarnath pillar edict and ruins of temples and monasteries and the spot where the Emperor meditated in seclusion; takes one back to the heydays of the Mauryan empire. The remains of an ancient monastery can still be seen here.

2008-10-12T21:35:00.000-07:00

Bibi Ka Makabra- Aurangabad
Bibi Ka Maqbara is the tomb of Begum Rabia Durani, wife of Emperor Aurangazeb. The monument is an excellent example of Persian Architecture. The arched aclove surmounted by a swelling dome, the idea had acquired its own reputation in India. This is also popularly known as "Mini Taj Mahel". Located in Aurangabad in the state of Maharashtra, it makes excellent iternity with Ananta and Elora caves in the Aurangabad.

Fort of Bidar - Maharashtra
Palaces, pavilions and seraglios ; lush gardens, decorated fountains and perfumed baths have all the trappings of an Arabian Nights fantasy when Bidar was ruled by the Bahamanis and the Barid Shahi Sultans of the Deccan.
The main gateway to the magnificent Fort of Bidar was originally built by Bahamani Sultan Ahmad Shah Wali in 1429. Further improvements to the citadel were carried out by the Barid Shahi Sultans. Ahmad Shah Wali (1422 - 35) the ninth Bahamani Sultan decided to shift his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar for reasons of health. Sprawled on a plateau 2,200 feet above sea level and overlooking the Manjira River Valley, cool and exhilarating Bidar was most certainly a part of ancient Vidharba mentioned in the Mahabharata. The main gateway to the magnificent Fort of Bidar. Built by Bahamani Sultan Ahmad Shah Wali in 1429. In medieval times Bidar belonged to the Chalukyan branch who established their capital in 977 A.D. at Kalyani, 57 kms away. Falling to the Yadavas of Devagiri (Daulatabad) and to the Kakatiyas of Warangal in 1322 A.D., Bidar fully rose to prominence under the sultanate regime.

INDIAN MONUMENTS

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Elephanta - Maharashtra
The southwestern side portrays the marriage of Shiva & parvati. The central figures are of Shiva the divine bridegroom, holding the right hand of Paravati. As the daughter of the mountains, she symbolizes the earth and stands demure and a little shy at she weds her divine partner. The portrait of Shiva is wonderful. His strong masculine figure adorned with handsome jewels and wearing a dhoti with a knotted sash presents a powerful contrast to the delicate form of Parvati exquisitely attired in her bridal finery. Brahma, the priest who joins these two together in matrimony, while Vishnu stands behind him as the best man wearing a elongated crown. On the other side in Chand, the moon god framed by a crescent halo, while the sky above is packed with hosts of heavenly beings that have gathered to celebrate the cosmic marriage of Shiva & Parvati.

Rockcut shrines - Ajanta
The ancient Buddhist caves of Ajanta bequeath to us a threefold artistic heritage. Havell, a leading art historian early in this century, had this to say about them. Very rarely in the world`s history has there come together that true symphony of the three arts: painting, sculpture and architectonic design, creating the most perfect architecture, which are so beautifully harmonised at Ajanta. The story of Ajanta is fascinating. Sometime in the second century this rugged horseshoe-shaped cliff, carved out by the Waghora river, was chosen to be the site of a great Buddhist establishment. Buddhist monks or artisans sculpted out shrines for prayer (chaitya halls) and monasteries for their stay (viharas). The next phase began around the fifth century AD with chaitya halls and viharas for monks of the Mahayana sect who portrayed in their paintings and sculptures images of the Buddha, their spiritual teacher and guide. The Buddhist order lived and� and sustaining themselves on the fruits of the forest and donations made by wealthy patrons. The caves once had steps and pathways that led to the meandering river shimmering below, and it is from here that the monks obtained their supply of water. The volcanic rock of the Deccan plateau, rich in minerals, provided the colours for the paintings: ochre reds and yellows, lamp black, lime for white, and lapis lazuli from distant lands for touches of brilliant blue. The rooms, after they had been roughly hewn, were coated with layers of plaster mixed with hay and husks to bind the mud to the ceilings, pillars, and walls. Then paint was applied on the entire expanse, not on wet plaster, as in the technique of fresco painting, but on a semi-dry surface. The caves were carved out of the solid face of the hillside, sculpted with pillars, rooms and images, and painted almost` simultaneously. Then for no apparent reason the caves were abandoned for several hundred years.

2008-10-12T21:20:00.000-07:00

LOHRI
The Fire Festival Lohri falls on January 13 every year. Considered the coldest day of the year, Lohri celebrations are marked by the lighting of bonfires. Celebrated in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, parts of Jammu and Kashmir, and Delhi, Lohri occurs in the month of Magha and falls on January 13 every year. It marks the end of the long and arduous winter. According to Hindu mythology, a year represents a 24-hour period in the life of the gods. The first six months represent the day, which is considered auspicious, and the second half the night, which is inauspicious. Lohri marks the last day in the night of the gods and is succeeded by Makara Sankranti, which welcomes the sun back to the northern hemisphere. This festival follows the solar calendar and also celebrates nature in all its bounty. Lohri occurs at a time when there is nothing to be done in the fields. The overworked farmers therefore take time off from their lands to enjoy and make merry. Since this day is traditionally considered the coldest day of the season, people collect in the evening around a bonfire made of dried hay and leaves to sing and dance. Bhangra and Gidda are the most popular dance forms. Special Lohri songs are also sung. In villages, the Lohri mood builds up over a week. Young boys and girls go from door to door, singing special Lohri songs and collecting gifts and money from residents. In the evenings, people gather to drink country liquor and celebrate. Two days prior to the festival, twigs and logs, dry leaves, hay, and paper are collected and placed in an open area away from the houses and barns. This is in preparation of the Lohri bonfire, the central event of the festival. Sometimes donations are accepted from residents to buy wood from the market. On the evening of Lohri, the eldest woman of the family prays for its welfare and prosperity and for the community. An elder then ceremonially kindles the fire. Once it is ablaze, peanuts, sesame seeds, rewari, batashe, popcorn and other harvest produce are thrown into it. This is probably in thanks giving and to appease Arani Devi. Unmarried girls collect the nuts that escape the fire and eat them, in the hope of getting a good husband. The mood is upbeat and everyone sings and dances around the fire. The fire and the dancing provide respite from the biting cold. A newborn child`s and a bride`s first Lohri in her new home are very important. Friends and relatives are invited for the occasion. Both baby and newly wed are dressed up, a bride in all her finery wearing new clothes and jewelry given to her by her mother-in law. Kheer made with fresh sugarcane juice is a speciality on Lohri. Prayers are also offered to Arani Devi. In Himachal Pradesh, the festival is called Magli. This is the time when the Rabi crop has been sown, and there is little else to do. The farmers enjoy this temporary relief from their agricultural labour. A unique custom observed in Himachal Pradesh on Lohri is the slaughtering of a goat in every house. The goat, symbolic of fertility and prosperity, is fattened the whole year in preparation for its slaughter on Lohri.

2008-09-25T20:33:00.001-07:00

SHIVARATRI
The Great Night of Shiva Celebrated on the new moon night in the month of Phalguna, this Hindu festival is dedicated to Lord Shiva. Observed especially by married women to ensure the long life of their husbands, it consists of a full day`s fast and annointing the idol of Shiva with milk, water and honey. Literally `the great night of Shiva`, celebrated on the moonless night of the month of Phalguna, which is fourteenth day in the dark half, this festival is specially dedicated to Shiva, the destroyer. This is an important day for the devotees of Shiva, who stay awake throughout the night, praying to him. In all major centres of Shivalinga worship, Shivaratri, also called Mahashivaratri, is a grand occasion. From the very early morning, Shiva temples are flocked by devotees, mostly women, who come to perform the traditional Shivalinga worship and hence hope for favours from the god. All through the day, devotees abstain from eating food and break their fast only the next morning, after the night-long worship. The day is considered to be especially auspicious for women. According to one myth, Parvati performed tapas, and prayed and meditated on this day to ward off any evil that may befall her husband on the moonless night. Since then,Mahashivaratri is also believed to bean auspicious occasion for women to pray for the well-being of their husbands and sons. An unmarried woman prays for a husband like Shiva, who is considered to be the ideal husband. Devotees bathe at sunrise,preferably in the Ganga, or any other holy water source (like the Shiva Sagartank at Khajurao). They offer prayers to the sun, Vishnu and Shiva. This is apurificatory rite, an important part of all Hindu festivals. Wearing a clean piece of clothing after the holy bath, worshippers carry pots of water to the temple to bathe the Shivalinga. The temple reverberates with the sound of? bells and shouts of Shankerji ki Jai or `Hail Shiva`. Devotees circumambulate the linga, three or seven times, and then pour water over it. Some also pour milk. According to a legend in the Ramayana, once King Bhagiratha left his kingdom to mediate for the salvation of the souls of his ancestors.He observed a penance to Brahma for a thousand years, requesting Ganga to come down to earth from heaven. He wanted her to wash over his ancestor`s ashes to release them from a curse and allow them to go to heaven. Brahma granted his wish but told him to pray to Shiva, who alone could sustain the weight of her descent. Accordingly, Ganga descended on Shiva`s head, and after meandering through his thick matted locks, reached the earth. According to a modified version, what reached the earth was just sprinkles from his hair. This story is believed to be re-enacted by bathing the linga. The love of water, the primary element of life, is also remembered in this ritualistic action. The linga is bathed with milk, water and honey. It is then annointed with sandalwood paste. People offer wood apple or bel leaves and fruit, milk, sandalwood and jujube fruit or ber to the linga. Shiva is believed to be very hot tempered, and hence things which have a cooling effect are offered to him. People decorate the linga with flowers and garlands and also offerincense sticks and fruit. In bigger temples, there is almost a stampede as devotees seek favours from the beloved god. Many also employ the services of a priest to perform special prayers. According to the Shiva Purana, the Mahashivaratri worship must incorporate six items: the ceremonial bath representing purification of the soul; the vermilion paste applied on the linga after bathing it, representing virtue; food offering which is conducive to longevity and gratification of desires; incense, yielding wealth; the lighting of the lamp which is conducive to the attainment of knowledge; and betel leaves marking satisfaction with worldly pleasures. These six items, till today, form an indispensable part of Mahashivaratri, be it a simple ceremony at home or a grand temple worship. By offering water, hugging the linga, lighting the diya and incense, and ringing the temple bells, devotees call into focus all their senses, making them acutely aware of themselves and the universe to which they belong. Shiva being an ascetic god, Mahashivaratri is very popular with ascetics. Thandai, a drink made with cannabis, almonds and milk, is essentially drunk by the devout. This is so because cannabis is said to have been very dear to Shiva. The Puranas contain many stories and legends describing the origin of this festival. According to one, during the samudra manthan, a pot of poison emerged from the ocean. This terrified the gods and demons as the posion was capable of destroying the entire world, and they ran to Shiva for help. To protect the world from its evileffects, Shiva drank the deathly poison but held it in his throat instead of swallowing it. Because of it, his throat turned blue, and he was given the name Neelakantha, the blue-throated one. Shivaratri is the celebration of this event by which Shiva saved the world. According to another legend in the Shiva Purana, once Brahma and Vishnu were fighting over who was the superior of the two. Horrified at the intensity of the battle, the other gods asked Shiva to intervene. To make them realise the futility of their fight, Shiva assumed the form of a huge column of fire in between Brahma and Vishnu. Awestruck by its magnitude, they decided to find one end each to establish supremacy over the other. Brahma assumed the form of a swan and went upwards and Vishnu as Varaha went into the earth. But light has no limit and though they searched for thousands of miles, neither could find the end. On his journey upwards, Brahma came across a Ketaki flower wafting down slowly. When asked where she had come from, the Ketaki replied that she had been placed at the top of the fiery column as an offering. Unable to find the uppermost limit, Brahma decided to end his search and take the flower as a witness. At this,the angry Shiva revealed his true form. He punished Brahma for telling a lie, and cursed him that no one would everpray to him. The Ketaki flower too was banned from being used as an offering for any worship, as she had testified falsely. Since it was on the 14th day in the dark half of the month of Phalguna that Shiva first manifested himself in the form of a linga, the day is specially auspicious and is celebrated as Mahashivaratri. Worshipping Shiva on this day is believed to bestow one with happiness and prosperity. Phalguna is a peculiar month. Immediately after Mahashivaratri, almost like a miracle, the trees are full of flowers as if to announce that after winter, the fertility of the earth has been rejuvenated. And this perhaps is the reason why the linga is worshipped throughout India as a symbol offertility. The festivities differ in various parts of India. In southern Karnataka, for example, children are allowed to get into all kinds of mischief and asking for punishment is the rule of the day, probably originating from the mythological incident of Shiva punishing Brahma for lying. The Vishvanatha Temple at Kashi in Varanasi celebrates the linga (symbolicof the pillar of light) and the manifestation of Shiva as the light of supreme wisdom. Mahashivaratri is thus not only a ritual but also a cosmic definition of the Hindu universe. It dispels ignorance, emanates the light of knowledge,makes one aware of the universe, ushers in the spring after the cold and dry winter, and invokes the supreme power to take cognizance of the beings who were created by him. A legend explains the benefits of the all-night worship of Shiva. There was once a poor tribal man who was a great devotee of Shiva. One day hewent deep into the forest to collect firewood. However he lost his way and could not return home before nightfall. As darkness fell, he heard the growls of wild animals. Terrified, he climbed onto the nearest tree for shelter till day-break. Perched amongst the branches, he was afraid he would doze and fall off the tree. To stay awake, he decided to pluck a leaf at a time from the tree and drop it, while chanting the name of Shiva. At dawn, he realised that he had dropped a thousand leaves onto a linga below which he had not seen in the dark. The tree happened to be a wood apple or bel tree. This unwitting all-night worship pleased Shiva, by whose grace the tribal was rewarded with divine bliss. This story is recited on Mahashivaratri by devotees on fast. After observing the all-night fast, devotees eat the prasad offered to Shiva. There is another possible reason for the origin of the all-night worship. Being a moonless night, people worshipped the god who wears the crescent moon as an adornment in his hair, Shiva. This was probably to ensure that the moon rose the next night

2008-09-25T20:28:00.000-07:00

TEEJ
A Festive Procession of Parvati The festival of Teej celebrates the onset of the monsoon in the month of Shravana, after the long and arduous summer. The day commemorates the event of Parvati leaving the home of her parents as a bride and Shiva coming to fetch her. The festival is extremely popular among women in north India. Married women come to their parents` home to celebrate this festival. It is an occasion for them to sing, dance and make merry. Songs in praise of Parvati, whose devotion to her husband is exemplary, are popularly sung. Special swings are hung on tree branches, and the women, revelling in the transformed, verdant country side,swing on them. They dress up as befits a married woman, adorning all the solashringara. They fast to rededicate themselves to their husband and family. It is believed that by praying to Parvati, marital bliss is best owed upon oneself. Usually a fair is organised on this occasion. For the rural women specially, this is a time to pamper and enjoy oneself, by buying bangles, bindis, bead necklaces, gettingphotographs taken, and eatingsumptuous dishes. After a ceremonial worship at home, an image of Parvati, clad in red and gold, borne on a palanquin is taken out in a procession, representative of her marriage procession. Several elephants, camels and dancers accompany the idol. Another form of Teej observed in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Biharand Maharashtra is Haritalika Teej. This is a three-day festival, celebrated by women also in honour of Parvati, in the month of Bhadrapad. By praying to Parvati on these three days, unmarried girls hope to get a husband like Shiva.Married women pray to her for marital bliss. According to Hindu mythology, Parvati was in love with Shiva. Being an ascetic however, Shiva was not aware of her. Parvati performed penance on the Himalayas for many years before Shiva finally noticed her.Realising the depth of her love and devotion, he agreed to marry her.Since then Parvati has been worshipped as Haritalika. Women and young girls maintain nirjala vrata on these three days, and keep awake all three nights. This is symbolic of the penance which Parvati undertook to get Shiva as her husband.They offer food to Brahmins and young girls. In Maharashtra, women wear green bangles, green clothes, golden bindis and kajal to signify their luck.?`Mehendi` one of the 16 adornments of a married woman, applied on Teej They distribute beautifully painted coconuts to their female relatives and friends and offer fresh fruit and green vegetables to the goddess as thanksgiving. When the rituals are over, they eat a feast of jaggery and rice patolis steamed in banana leaves,a sweet made from coconut milk and rice, and mixed vegetables cooked with spices and coconut milk. Tender coconut water is the treat of this day.

2008-09-25T20:25:00.001-07:00

RAKSHA BANDHAN
The Festival of Brothers and Sisters This festival of love between brothers and sisters is a major Hindu festival which falls on the full moon day in the month of Shravana in north India. It ismarked by sisters tying a protective amulet on the wrist of their brothers for their long life and protection. Raksha literally means `protective` and bandhan means `binding`. Raksha Bandhan is the festival of tying the protective amulet and celebrates the love between a brother and sister. It falls on the day preceeding the full moon night in the month of Shravana. Sisters tie a rakhi on the wrists of their brothers and pray for their long and healthy life. The brothers on their part pledge to protect their sisters against any danger. The festival is restricted to north Indian households. Like any other festive day, on Raksha Bandhan too, houses are cleaned. The day begins with puja after the customary bath. Sisters then prepare a puja thali, which is a plate containing a betel leaf, betel nuts, rice grains, sandal paste, vermillion, some sweets and a rakhi. On the plate also reposes an oil lamp. The betel leaf and the betel nuts symbolise long life, the sandal paste bravery, and the diya symbolises the eternal nature of relationships between a brother and sister. The rice grains are a symbol of happiness and joy. The sister then performs the arati for the brother and applies a tilak of sandal paste or vermillion and rice grains on his forehead. She then ties the rakhi on his wrist and gives him some sweets to eat. Traditionally, the sister does not eat anything before tying the rakhi; she breaks her fast by accepting some sweets from her brother after the ceremony. The brother, on his part,gives her some money or a gift according to his means. In India the postal department works overtime to deliver rakhis on time. The market places too buzzes with activity a few days before the festival. Craftsmen summon up all their creativity in making rakhis, which are available in all shapes, sizes and colours. They are made as traditional silken threads and also as more elaborate flowers made of felt, sponge,coloured paper or embroidered cloth. The origin of this custom is found in the Puranas. However the recent form of this festival is different from what it used to be in the Puranic times. According to some scholars, the origin of this festival can be traced to social relations that formed the basis of astable society. Most ancient and medieval societies were founded on the principles of the protector and protected: a king (or government) and the subjects. The protector, however was not easily available and accessible and thus a ritualistic custom had to beinvented to reinforce the hierarchical ties between the two. Raksha Bandhan (according to the Puranas, Rakshikabandhanas) was one such custom, which helped in the smooth functioning of society. It was believed that on this day, one should have a protective amulet tied. Accordingly, Brahmins tied a rakshita on the wrist of people of all castes to the recitation of a protective mantra. And they were given a handsome donation for this service. The rakshita was believed to protect against any calamity or danger for a whole year. But like most other Hindu festivals, this one too had its roots in mythology from the Puranas. And because of its divine connotations, it was celebrated with vigour and enthusiasm. According to a legend in the Bhavishyottara Purana, Indra`s wife tied a Rakshikasutra on his arm which allowed him to emerge victorious against the asuras. The time of the year when this festival occurs is also apparently of great importance. During the rainy months, when this festival is observed, one is more prone to danger and natural calamities, by way of floods or snake bites. It was hence considered appropriate to have a `protective ceremony` during this time. Around the 17th century, however, the connotations of this festival changed to an expression of affection between brothers and sisters. The origin of this change is very difficult to trace. Many regional myths and folklore seem to have contributed to it.The central idea behind the festival, though, remained the same: it was stilla symbol of protection and affection. One of the most interesting and baffling myths comes from the Markandeya Purana. One day Yama, the god of death, and his sister Yami were walking down the avenues of Mrityuloka, the world of the dead. Suddenly, Yami felt sexually aroused, after being hit by the arrow of Kama who was up to his usual mischief. Not finding any man near her, she asked Yama to satisfy her desires. Enraged, Yama chastised her for her incestuous feelings and left immediately. Later Yama realised that Kama was responsible for this episode and cursed him. He stated that Kama would be unable to meet his wife for a year and would have to perform severe penanceto atone for his sin. Yama then tied arakshita around her wrist to protect her from all unwanted and undesired things. This myth provides a possible?clue to the change in this festival. The Dharmashastras explicitly forbid a sexual union between a brother and sister born of the same mother. Any such incident had to be followed by penance and punishment. In fact one of the tenets of later Hindu world was to stop incestuous relationships as they were thought to degrade the moral standard of society. This was extremely difficult, for the Puranic myths and legends seemed to legitimise incestuous relationships like Brahma marrying his daughter, Sarasvati; Krishna having a relationship with Radha, who was his aunt; and Shiva sleeping with his mother Shakti. To stop such practises in society, the Dharmashastras forbade any liasion between a brother and sister, mother and son, or father and daughter. And it was definitely this attempt that led to the popularity of Raksha Bandhan in its present form. There are many popular legends linked to this festival. According to a Rajasthani folktale, once upon a time there was a girl who had no brothers.On Raksha Bandhan, when the other girls were tying rakhis on the wrists of their brothers and offering them sweets, she felt very lonely. Weeping, she lamented that there was no one to accept her rakhi. Her mother tried to pacify her but she would not be consoled. Eventually she wiped away her tears. Taking a rakhi, she told her mother that she was going to offer it to Ganesha. She went to the temple and requested the god to accept her offer. After she had sat before him with folded hands for a long time, the god acquiesced and left his throne. The girl was delighted and invited Ganesha home. Seeing her daughter return with the god, her mother was speechless. She humbly offered whatever was in the house to her godly son. Satisfied Ganesha left, and the next morning when they awoke, the girl and her mother found themselves lying on golden cots with thick cushions, attended by angels in a palatial home. This story also illustrates another contemporary aspect of Raksha Bandhan: of adopting someone as a brother who is not related. It is quite common now adays for a girl to adopt a classmate in school or college as a brother by tying a rakhi on him. In a similar fashion, boys also adopt sisters. Although some of these relationships are established to enable young men and women to meet in a somewhat conservative society, many of these bonds are treated with great reverence by both parties all through their lives. One facet of the relationship between a brother and sister that has endured from ancient times is its sanctity. Indian history is littered with examples of brothers who honoured their rakhi pledge by sacrificing their lives. During the Mughal period, many Rajput princesses sent rakhis to Muslim rulers, whom they wanted to befriend and accept as protectors of their kingdom. Humanyun received a rakhi from Karmavati, the queen of Chittor, asking him to help her fight the king of Gujarat. To honour the rakhi, Humayun left his state to a rebellious chieftain, unsure of whether he would have a kingdom to return to. Today Raksha Bandhan has crossed the bonds of religion to emerge as a truly secular festival.

2008-09-25T20:20:00.000-07:00

NAGA PANCHAMI
The Festival of the Snakes This popular Hindu festival, which falls on the fifth day of the bright fortnight in the month of Shravana, is observed to minimise the danger of snake bites in the monsoon months. It is marked by offering milk to the snakes and is most popular in south India. Naga literally means `serpent` and panchami is the `fifth day`. Naga Panchami is the festival of snakes celebrated on the fifth day of the bright fortnight in the month of Shravana. The festival falls during the rainy months and is believed to counter the increased possibility of a snake bite during this time. People visit temples specially dedicated to snakes and worship them. Shiva temples are also favoured places for veneration as snakes are considered dear to him. In South India, people craft images of snakes using cowdung on either side of the entrance to the house to welcome the snake god. Snakes are believed to like milk. As this is the day of the serpents, devotees pour milk into all the holes in the ground around the house or near the temple to propitiate them. Sometimes, a small pot of milk with some flowers is placed near the holes so that the snakes may drink it. If a snake actually drinks the milk, it is considered to be extremely lucky for the devotee. The festival is celebrated with much enthusiasm by all, especially women. As most rivers in India are in spate during the month of Shravana, poisonous snakes come out of their subterranean abodes and creep about in plenty all over the place. Many also float on flooded rivers running through the countryside. Mortality from snake bites must have been considerable to prompt people to worship the nagas to seek protection from them. Because of the fear, nagas were elevated to a divine status by the Hindus. The serpents are believed to have the capability to change their shape at will. When in human form, they are depicted as beautiful women and handsome men. According to a legend, Kadru, the mother of the nagas, once bet with her sister Vinata about the colour of the tail of Indra`s horse. She asserted that the tail was black even though the horse was absolutely white. According to Vinata however, the tail of the horse was as white as the rest of it. Kadru then asked her sons the nagas to coil around the white tail of the horse so that it appeared black. When they refused to participate in deceit, Kadru cursed them to be consumed by fire for disobeying her. Brahma however softened the curse and sent them to live in the netherworld. This happened on the fifth day in the month of Shravana and because the lives of the nagas was spared on this day, it is considered to be auspicious for snake worship. Naga Panchami is observed in different ways in different parts of India. It is one of the most ancient fasts, and finds mention in the Puranas. It is believed to be one of the most auspicious days of the entire year. According to the Bhavishya Purana, when men bathe the snake scalled Vasuki, Takshaka, Kaliya, Manibhadra, Airavata, Dhritarashtra, Karkotaka and Dhananjaya with milk on the fifth day of the bright fortnight of Shravana, they ensure freedom from danger for their families. Again, according to the Bhavishya Purana, worshippers should make gold, silver or clay images of snakes and worship them with kaner, jasmine and incense, feed Brahmins with ghee and payasa, and bathe the snake images with milk. This would bestow safety from snake bites on the worshippers. The Bhavishyottara Purana enjoins a person to make figures of cowdung and place them on both sides of his door. He should then worship them with curds, Durva tendrils, Kusha grass, sandalwood paste, flowers and presents of food. In some parts of southern India, figures of snakes are drawn with red sandalwood paste on wooden boards, or clay images of snakes coloured yellow or black are purchased. These are then worshipped and offered milk. Snake charmers wander about with all sorts of snakes, to which people offer milk. The snake charmers are paid some money for allowing this. Serpent worship developed gradually from the fear of serpents that must have taken a heavy toll on life, particularly at the beginning of the rainy season. In the Ashvalayana Grihyasutra, the Paraskara Grihyasutra and other Grihyasutras, a rite called Sarpabali or `offerings to serpents` was performed on the full moon night of Shravana. However the reason that it was moved from the full moon night to that of the fifth night of the bright fortnight is not apparent. It may be due to the slight change in the time of the onset of the rains.

2008-09-25T20:18:00.000-07:00

RAMANAVAMI
The Birth of Lord Rama This nine-day Hindu festival, celebrated in the bright fortnight in the month of Chaitra, commemorates the birth of Lord Rama who was born to annihilate the demon King Ravana. Ramanavami celebrates the birth of Rama or Ramachandra. The festival is celebrated on the ninth day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Chaitra. In some parts of India, it is a nine-day festival, coinciding with the Vasanta Navaratri. It finds mention in ancient texts and literature. This is an occasion for great rejoicing especially for the Vaishnavas who celebrate it with due solemnity allover the country. The ancient texts lay stress on fasting on this day, and it is believed that anyone who does not will go to the worst hell. It is also said that Rama fulfills the wishes of all those who pray to him on this day. The public worship starts with morning ablutions, chanting Vedic mantras dedicated to Vishnu, and offering flowers and fruit to the god. People keep a fast throughout the day, breaking it only at midnight with fruit. In some parts of India, especially Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, public gatherings called satsangs are organised to commemorate the birth of Rama. Excerpts from the Ramacharitamanas, extoling the glory of Rama, are recited. People of all castes and creeds participate in these gatherings to listen to the stories and their explanations offered by the learned. Ramanavami brings together people of different castes. In earlier times, it was specified that this festival be celebrated by all, perhaps as away to release the social tension that existed due to the caste system. With the decline of the caste rigidness, this festival is now celebrated to sing the glory of a great mythical hero and is a source of divine inspirations. Ayodhya is the focus of great celebrations. A huge fair is organised for two days. Ratha yatras or `chariot processions` of Rama and his wife Sita, brother Lakshmana and devotee Hanuman, are taken out from many temples. Hanuman is worshipped for his unflinching devotion to Rama, and his worship forms an important part of the Ramanavami celebrations. People keep awake the whole of the nineth night, in anticipation of Rama`s birth. They sing devotional songs in praise of him and rock hisimage in cradles to celebrate his birth. There are also recitations from the Ramacharitamanas. A special puja is performed the next morning as thanksgiving. Though the public worship of Ramais of recent origin, his worship inside the home dates back to the pre-Christian era. Reference to keeping a strict fast on Ramanavami is found in the Kalika Purana. The vrata of Ramanavami was considered one of the five most important vratas of the ancient times. The Ramachandrika and Vratarka expressly state that everybody is obligated to observe this vrata as it is the sole means of worldly happiness and salvation. This includes members of the lowest castes and outcastes, who were ordinarily not permitted to observe social and religious rituals.

2008-09-25T20:11:00.000-07:00

PONGAL
The Harvest Festival This three-day Hindu harvest festival falls in the month of Magha, corresponding with the solar equinox. Celebrated in the south, it is marked by the cooking of the rice from the first harvest after the long and arduous winter. This three-day harvest festival is celebrated every year in Magha, from the 13th to the 15th of January. The word `pongal` refers to the dish of sweet rice prepared on this occasion. The festival is celebrated widely in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The time of the festival is of great importance to all Hindus, a sit corresponds to the solar equinox when the days begin to lengthen and the nights begin to wane. According to Hindu mythology, this is when the day of the gods begins, after a six-month long night. The festival is spread over three days and is the most important and most fervently-celebrated harvest festival of south India. A special puja is performed on the first day of Pongal before the cutting of the paddy. Farmers worship the sun and the earth by anointing their ploughs and sickles with sandalwood paste. It is with these consecrated tools that the newly-harvested rice is cut. The first day is called Pongal Podigai or Bhogi Pongal and is a day of family feasting and enjoyment. Since the festival celebrates the harvest of the paddy crop, the newly harvested rice is first cooked on this day. The rice grains, along with sesame seeds, jaggery, chick peas, groundnuts and dried coconut, are put into an earthen pot filled with milk. This is boiled until some of the milk spills over, and the preparation is called `Pongal`. It is generally cooked at an auspicious hour, recommended by the priest, in the courtyard of the house. A portion of the cooked rice is offered to Ganesha, and the rest is shared by the family, neighbours and friends as consecrated food. As people greet each other, they ask paal pongita or `has the milk boiled over?`. Another ritual observed on this day is called Bhogi Mantalu, when useless household articles are thrown into a fire made of wood and cowdung cakes. Girls dance around the bonfire, singing songs in praise of the gods, the spring and the harvest. In Andhra Pradesh, in the morning the girls burn their old clothes and wear new ones after an oil massage and bath. Then follows Pongal Panai, a ritual in which the new earthenware pots are painted and decorated with turmeric, flowers and mango leaves. The second day is known as Surya Pongal, the day for the worship of Surya, and the rice cooked in milk and jaggery is offered him. When the foodis being cooked and when it boils over, people shout pongalo pongal loudly and many times to rejoice. On this festive day, a newly-married couple, symbolising freshness and joy, is presented with new clothes by the bride`s parents. The servants of the house are also given new clothes towear. Bathing in the sacred rivers during Pongal is believed to be extremely beneficial. Hence, devotees flock to Tanjavur in Tamil Nadu to bathe in the waters of the Kaveri, and to Tirunelveli, also in Tamil Nadu to bathe in the river Tamrapani. Bathingin the sea at Vedanaranyam in Tamil Nadu is also considered auspicious. The third day is known as Mattu Pongal or Gopuja, the day of Pongal for cows. It is marked by cattle worship. In earlier times, cattle formed the chief asset of an agriculturalist and it was only proper that their services were recognised and celebrated on this day.The cattle are given a ceremonial bath in the morning, their horns are cleaned, polished and painted, and then decorated with flowers. hey are then given Pongal to eat. Arati is performed on them, so as to ward off the evil eye. According to a legend, once Shiva asked his bull, Basava, to go to the earth and ask the mortals to have an oil massage and bath every day and to eat once a month. Inadvertently, Basava announced that everyone should eat daily and have an oil bath once a month. This mistake enraged Shiva who then cursed Basava, banishing him to live on the earth forever. He would have to plough the fields and help people produce more food. Thus the association of this day with cattle. A festival called Jallikathu is held in Madurai, Tiruchirapalli and Tanjavur, all in Tamil Nadu, on this day. Bundles of money are tied to the horns of ferocious bulls which the villagers try to retrieve. Everyone joins in the community meal, at which the food is made of the freshly harvested grain.This day is named and celebrated as Tamilian Tirunal in a fitting manner throughout Tamil Nadu. Muttu Pongal, also called Kanu Pongal, is also celebrated by sisters for the welfare of their brothers. This festival is reminiscent of Raksha Bandhan and Bhai Duja (see Diwali) of north India. A large banana (Musaparadisiaca) leaf is washed. It is then placed on the ground, next to the basilaltar in the courtyard. On it is placed a branch of the amla (Phylalnthus embelica) tree. On this leaf are placed at four corners, the leftovers of sweet pongal and the salty pongal called Vand Pongal, ordinary rice as well as coloured red and yellow, five betel leaves, two betel nuts, two pieces of sugarcane, turmeric leaves, and two or three ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) fruit. On this also reposes an oil lamp. In TamilNadu women perform this ritual before bathing in the morning. In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the festival starts after everyone has bathed. All the women, young and old, of the house assemble in the courtyard. The eldest married woman distributes a handful ofrice to all the others. The rice is placed in the centre of the banana leaf, while the women ask that the house and family of their brothers should prosper.Arati is performed for the brothers with tumeric water, limestone and rice, and this water is sprinkled on the rangoli in front of the house. Sisters apply a tilak on the foreheads of their brothers, and give them fruit, sweets, sesame seed and jaggery. The brothers thank their sisters for their good wishes and give them money and gifts. The celebration of this festival probably originated very early on. From the very beginning, the first agriculturalists realised the importance of a good crop, which sustained the entire clan. And since, to him, it depended on some supernatural element, he thought it fit to thank the gods after a good harvest. Further, it was believed that all that is new, a new crop, the first catch of a season, and the first born of a domestic animal, was sacred and hence not to be touched by man until certain sacramental ceremonies were performed. A part of the new was sacrificed to the gods or spirits, and one`s ancestors, and only then could it be consumed. In addition, it was realised that the fruit of the earth and animals for food should not be garnered until they were ready. This was emphasised by the community; and until a ritual was performed, nothing could be gathered, slain, oreaten. The harvest festival of Pongal symbolises the veneration of the first fruit. The crop is harvested only after a certain time of the year, and cutting the crop before that time is strictly prohibited. Even though Pongal was originallya festival for the farming community,today it is celebrated by all. In the south, all three days of Pongal are considered important. However, those south Indians who have settled in the north usually celebrate only the second day. Coinciding with Makara Sankranti and Lohri of the north, it is also called Pongal Sankranti. Though traditionally `pongal` is cooked using the newly harvested grain, nowadays it is not easily available. Therefore families not directly involved in agriculture cook `pongal` using old rice, to give thanks in the traditional way.

2008-09-25T20:07:00.000-07:00

ONAM
The Harvest Festival This four-day harvest festival of the Hindus falls in the month of Chingam, marking the advent of spring. It also celebrates the yearly visit of King Mahabali to Kerala. One of the main events of this festival is the snake boat races. Onam is a four-day harvest festival celebrated in Kerala. It falls in the Malyali month of Chingam, marking the end of the life-giving monsoon and the advent of spring. Mythologically, the event celebrates the annual visit of King Mahabali. According to a legend in Vishnu Purana, Mahabali was a king, and through severe penance had gained dominion over the three worlds. He was an able and just ruler and his people adored him. The gods however, shorn of their powers and deprived of their abode and the spoils from sacrifices performed on earth, asked Vishnu for help. He agreed, and took his fourth incarnation of Vamana, the dwarf. Accordingly, he was born to Sage Kashyapa and his consort Aditi. When he attained maturity, he went to?the court of Mahabali, who was in the midst of a sacrifice. The virtuous Balisaw the Brahmin and immediately asked him what he desired. Vamana begged for as much land as he could encompass with three steps. Bali agreed to the humble request but as soon as the sacrificial water was poured on Vamana`s hands, he became a giant. With one step he covered the earth, with the second step the heavens. As there was no place to claim his third step, Bali offered his head as a resting ground. Vishnu put his foot on Bali`s head and pushed him down to the nether world. However, inrecognition of his virtues, Vishnu made him king of the Asuras. At Bali`s request, Vishnu allowed him to return to earth to visit his people once a year. It is believed that Mahabali visits his people in Kerala during Onam. It has now been historically established that a king named Mahabali ruled over the region of modern Kerala around the 4th century AD. He was a powerful and just kingand his dynasty ruled over Kerala for about 150 years. The return of their erstwhile king is celebrated by the Keralites with tremendous enthusiasm and vigour. Kerala wears a festive look during these four days. Every house is cleaned and decorated. Doorways are adorned with rangoli and flowers. Pukkalam, or floral decorations consisting of garlands and flower petals, are an essential inclusion in all decorations since traditionally, flowers are used to welcome people. Flowers are also symbolic of innocence and freshness which the season brings withit. Every day the old flowers are replaced with new ones. According to alocal belief, the better the house is decorated, the greater the chance of King Mahabali entering it. Here Bali signifies the harvest, and the visit of Mahabali actually symbolises a good harvest. As Kerala is still largely agricultural, people celebrate this event with enthusiasm. Sumptuous feasts are also prepared on all days during Onam. Although the festival centers around the myth of Mahabali and Vishnu, it also celebrates the advent of the harvest season. It is not just the commemoration of the return of a great king who bestowed prosperity and happiness on his people, but also the veneration of the harvest that indicates wealth and joy. On all the four days,the family prays to Vishnu and sings songs in praise of King Mahabali who, through his humility, won Vishnu`s honour and respect. Women sing and dance in the evenings. Vallom Kallies or the snake boat races form an important part of Onam celebrations. Some of the sites famous for these races are Aranmula on the Pamba river in the Kuttanad region,Papiyad near Quilon, and Thayathangadi near Kottayam. The slim boats are about 100 feet long with a capacity of about 150 men. Black in colour, the boats are usually made of anjili (Artocarpus hirsuta), but sometimes teak and kadamb (Nauclea cadamba) wood is also used. Both ends of the boat curl out of the water to about 15 to 20 feet. The curled end sare shaped like cobra hoods and it is from this shape that boat has derived its name. The boats are made by traditional boat builders who inherit this art from their fathers and pass it down to their sons. Everything is handmade and crafted with great care. The boats are ornately designed and decorated with green and scarlet silk umbrellas; their number denotes the affluence of the family to which they belong. Gold coins, ornaments and tassels are hung from the umbrellas. Preparations for the race begin days in advance. Many practice sessions are organised which cease two days before the race. The boats are launched into the water a day before the race, which is held on the third of the four days of Onam. On the day of the race, the boats are smeared with coconut oil to smooth their passage through the water. Just before the race begins, priests perform a small puja to Vishnu and Mahabali and confer blessings on the boat and the boatmen. Flowers are offered to the gods and then placed at the helm of the boat as a sign of good luck. Each long, graceful, snake-like boat is rowed by 100 oarsmen to the beat and rhythm of cymbals, drums, and songs. The winner of this race is bestowed many presents. In the evening, girls dance around the traditional brass lamp, with much rejoicing. According to a legend related to the origin of these boats, once some bandits robbed a small boat carrying offerings to a Krishna temple. Krishna appeared before the devotee in adream and advised him to build alarger boat which, when rowed by 100to 150 oarsmen, would glide swiftly and outstrip any pirate. And so the speedy or snake boat was designed.

2008-09-25T20:02:00.000-07:00

BAISAKHI
The Harvest Festival Baisakhi, the harvest festival, falls on April 13. Celebrated in Punjab and Haryana, this festival also commemorates the formation of the order of the Khalsa. Baisakhi is a derivative of Vaishakha. After harvesting the winter crop, the farmers of the northern states of Punjab and Haryana celebrate the beginning of another year. The day coincides with the solar equinox on the 13th of April. There is boisterous dancing and loud joyous singing as the traditional folk dances of Punjab, called the Gidda and Bhangra, are performed. It is also the anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa Pantha.People collect in the evening around abon fire to celebrate the harvest. History has recorded the execution of GuruTeg Bahadur, the ninth guru of the Sikhs, by the Mughals, on November 11, 1675. In revolt against this injustice, his son Guru Govind Singh, who was also the tenth guru, was compelled to take up arms. He selected the auspicious day of Baisakhi to initiate this important task, by forming the order of the Khalsa. On the13th of April in 1699, at a meeting in atown named Anandpur in Punjab, the guru called upon his people to come forward to sacrifice themselves for the good of the clan. Pin-drop silence met his appeal. He repeated the call, with the same response. The third time, a thirty-year-old man named Daya Ram Khatri stood up and volunteered. The guru took Daya Ram to a tent nearby and returned alone after some time, his sword dripping blood. He repeated his call for volunteers four more times.The others who offered themselves were Dharm Das, a Jat from Delhi, Mokhan Chand, a washerman from Dwarka, Sahib Chand a barber from Bidar, and Himmat Rai, a water carrier from Jagannatha. Each of them went with him to the tent and everytime he returned alone with his bloodied sword. The guru went to the tent yet again, this time for a long time. He reappeared followed by the five men, clad in saffron-coloured garments. The crowd was astonished for it had assumed them to be dead. They sat on the dais made for the occasion, while the guru prepared water to bless them. In an iron vessel, he stirred the batasha that his wife, Mata Jitoji had put into water, with a sword called Khanda Sahib, while verses from their scriptures were recited by the congregation. The water was now considered the sacred nectar of immortality called amrita. It was firstgiven to the five volunteers, then drunk by the guru and later distributed to the crowd. All those present, irrespective of caste or creed, became members of the Khalsa Pantha. This was also agreat step in national integration because society at that time was divided on the basis of religion, caste and social status. The concept of forming a group where the origin of the individual became irrelevant was considered a very radical step. Those who had offered their lives were christened the Panch Pyare. They were directed by the guru to wear five K`s: Kesh or long hair, Kangha or comb, Kripan or dagger, Kachha or shorts and a Kara or bracelet. He discontinued the tradition of gurus and asked all Sikhs to accept the Grantha Sahib as their eternal guide. He urged them to come to him with their hair and beards unshorn to get baptised by the sword. The suffix Singh derived from the Sanskrit word singha meaning `lion`, was added to the name of all male Sikhs, while the women were to call themselves Kaur, assistants to the Singh. To pay tribute to this event, prayer meetings are organised in gurdwaras across the country. The main celebration however, takes place in the gurdwara at Anandpur Sahib, where the order was formed. At about 4 o`clock in the morning, the Guru Grantha Sahib is ceremonially taken out from its resting chambers. After asymbolic bath with milk and water, it is placed on its throne. Priests called the Panch Pyare then chant the verses that were recited by the original Panch Pyare when the order was created. Called the Panch Bani, these prayers include the Jabji Sahib, Jap Sahib, Sudha Savahiye, Chow Payee Sahiband Anandpur Sahib. While the Panch Bani is being chanted, amrita is prepared in an iron vessel, as was done by Guru Govind Singh. Devotees sip the amrita five times and vow to work for the Khalsa Panth. At noon, after the ardas, the Karah Prasad is offered to the guru for his blessings. It is then distributed to the congregation. They eat the prasad, before proceeding to participate in the guru ka langar. Believers perform kar seva. Shabads and kirtans are sung all day long to honour Guru Govind Singh and the beloved five, the founders of the Khalsa Panth.

2008-09-25T19:59:00.000-07:00

MAKARA SANKRANTI
Return of the Sun to the North Makara Sankranti celebrates the entry of the sun into the Tropic of Capricorn in the month of Magha. Makara literally means `Capricorn` and sankranti is the day when the sun passes from one sign of the zodiac to the next. The sankranti of any month is considered auspicious as it signifies a fresh start. However Makara Sankranti is celebrated in the month of Magha when the sun passes through the winter solstice, from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn. According to Hindu mythology, one `human` year of 365 days is equivalent to one day and night of the gods. Makara Sankranti marks the beginning of the day of the gods, which is equivalent to six solar months and is believed to be the auspicious part of the year. The previous six months, considered the night and therefore symbolic of darkness and evil, are inauspicious. Makara Sankranti is believed to be the time when Surya rides his chariot, drawn by seven horses, from the southern skies to the north. For the pastoral people therefore, it is of prime importance for it signifies the end of the winter and the `turning back` of the sun to the north. This festival has been celebrated for thousands of years. Initially, this was probably a festival celebrated in the cold climate, when people prayed for the warmth of the sun. In all likelihood, the Aryans celebrated it, and continued to do so after migrating to India. Today, Makara Sankranti is celebrated throughout India as a harvest festival. It is a way of giving thanks to the elements of nature that help man. This is the period when the winter recedes, paving the way for the summer. It is the time the farmers bring home their harvest. In the coastal regions, it is a harvest festival dedicated to Indra. In Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, it is celebrated as a three-day harvest festival Pongal. In Assam, the festival is celebrated as Bhogali Bihu, and in Punjab it is called Lohri. In North India, a ritual bath in the river is important on this day. In fact, bathing is considered mandatory on this day, and according to a popular local belief in the hills of Uttar Pradesh, one who does not bathe on Makara Sankranti is born a donkey in his next birth. The belief probably originated in cold climates to compel some of the more reluctant people to observe certain rules of hygiene. Khichiri is eaten and given away as charity, and some call the festival Khichiri Sankranti. People also distribute rice and lentils to the poor and needy. In Maharashtra, a special dish called tilgul, or laddoos made of jaggery and sesame seed, the chief crop of the season, is popular. A big fair is held at the confluence of the Ganga, the Yamuna and the Sarasvati rivers at Triveni in Allahabad(Uttar Pradesh) on this occasion. Being the month of Magha, this fair is also called Magha Mela. Apart from Triveni, ritual bathing also takes place at many places like Haridvar and Garh Mukteshwar in Uttar Pradesh, and Patna in Bihar. Since it is also the season to fly kites, the evening sky is awash with colourful kites of all shape sand sizes. Several kite competition sare held in various localities.

2008-09-25T19:51:00.000-07:00

KRISHNA JANMASHTAMI

The Birth of Lord Krishna This Hindu festival, which falls during the dark fortnight in the month of Bhadra, is celebrated to commemorate the birth of Krishna to annihilate Kansa. It is marked by fasts, prayers and the enactment of incidents from Krishna`s childhood. Janma literally means `birth` and ashtami means the `eighth day`. The eighth day of the dark fortnight in the month of Bhadrapad is celebrated as Krishna Janmashtami. It commemorates the birth of Krishna, born to annihilate Kansa, the evil king of Mathura. This festival is very popular in north India. People observe a day-long fast which is broken only at midnight, the time when Krishna is believed to have been born. The festival is acommunity celebration, and people visit Krishna temples which are specially decorated and lit for the occasion. The image of Krishna is ceremonially bathed in a mixture of curds, milk, honey, dry fruit and basilor tulasi leaves. This mixture is then distributed as prasad to all devotees. The idol is dressed in new clothes and offered food, sweets, fruit and clarified butter. Priests chant mantras from religious scriptures. The temple too reverberates with devotional songs inpraise of the god. In Mathura, believed to be Krishna`s birthplace, and other places near by, these ceremonial observances are amplified by the staging of dramas. In them, Krishna makes himself available in an especially vivid manner to his devotees through child actors. These Brahmin boys act out incidents from Krishna`s childhood and are, for that period,considered to be the god. Devotees treat them with respect and veneration,even prostrating before them. Tableaux featuring scenes from the life of Krishna abound the streets all through the day. A little before midnight, devotees pour into temples to participate in the special arati and to relive the birth of Krishna. Till midnight, devotional songs are sung in anticipation of the holy birth. Special cradles are installed at temples and a small statue of the godis placed in them. At exactly midnight, temple bells are rung to announce the birth of Krishna. Everyone clamours to rock the cradle of the newborn. Then a special arati is performed, after which devotees partake the special prasad. Details of celebrations for Janmashtami are found in many scriptures. The Dharmashastras specify the day to be celebrated as a vrata. The Bhavishya Purana cautions against the non-observance of this vrata saying: " Whether a man or woman, if one neglects to observe the birthday vrata of Lord Krishna, the defaulter shall be re-born as a female serpent in a deep forest." Other such references leave little doubt that Krishna Janmashtami originates in ancient times and that the vrata is considered mandatory. Interesting games commemorate this event. One of the most popular is the breaking of the dahi handi or `pot of curd`. A terracotta pot containing milk, butter and curd is hung high up across a street. Groups of men form a pyramid to try and break this pot. The group that succeeds is named the winner, and its leader is treated with respect by the community. This game is believed to have been specially dear to Krishna and his friends. Another form of public recreation is the Raslila. According to the Puranas, Kansawas an evil king of Mathura who had overthrown his father and imprisoned him. His attrocities drove the gods toVishnu who promised to take his eighth incarnation in the human world. He wasthen born as Krishna in the 28th year of the Dwapara Yuga.? According to a legend related to Krishna`s birth, Kansa had a cousin called Devaki, whom he loved dearly. In due course, Kansa arranged a suitable match for her and married her with great pomp and show. However, an oracle foretold Kansa that Devaki`s eight child would be responsible for his death. Enraged, Kansa was about to slice off her head when her husband Vasudeva intervened. He begged Kansa not to kill Devaki and in return promised to give him all their children at birth. Kansa agreed, but imprisoned the couple to ensure this. In time, he killed six of their children by throwing them against a stone slab outside the prison. The seventh child however was transferred to the womb of Rohini, another of Vasudeva`s wives, and Kansa believed that Devaki had suffered a miscarriage. When she was pregnant with the eighth child, Kansa increased security at the prison and ordered the guards to bring the newborn to him the moment he was born. It was midnight on the eighth day in the month of Shravana, on a dark, rainy and windy night. Just before the child was born, the guards all fell into a deep slumber and the locks on the prison door opened. Devaki and Vasudeva too were freed of their binds. And Krishna was born. A voice from the heavens instructed Vasudeva to carry Krishna across the Yamuna river to a village called Gokul. There, he should go to the home of his sister Yashoda and her husband Nanda and replace Krishna with their new-born daughter. Vasudeva put his son in a basket and went quickly towards the Yamuna. When he reached the shores, he found the water level rising. He put the basket on his head and began to wade through. The water level rose but everytime it touched the baby`s toes, it receded. Suddenly, a cobra sprang out of the water. Vasudeva froze but the snake stopped to spread its hood over the basket. It was Sesha Naga protecting Krishna from the rain. Vasudeva realised his son was no ordinary baby. He hurried to Gokul, exchanged the children and returned to the prison. As soon as he entered, the locks shut and the guards a woke. Hearingthe baby cry, they informed Kansa who rushed to the prison. He was about to smash the little girl against the stone slab, when she slipped out of his hands. As she rose towards the sky, she warned him that the one responsible for his death was safe. When Krishna grew up, he killed his evil uncle and restored the throne to his grandfather.

2008-09-25T19:44:00.000-07:00

GANESHA UTSAV
The Festival of Ganesha This ten-day Hindu festival, celebrated in Maharashtra during the bright half of Bhadrapad, commemorates the birth of Ganesha. It is marked with a grand procession of the elephant-headed god. This is a ten-day festival, dedicated to Ganesha. Celebrated from the fourth to the fourteenth day in the bright fortnight of Bhadrapad, it is specially important in Maharashtra and is one of the cultural highlights of the state. Lok Manya Tilak, the illustrious freedom fighter of Maharashtra, popularised this festival. The festival begins on the fourth day of Bhadrapad, which is celebrated as Ganesha Chaturthi in the rest of India. This day is very important to all Hindus, who believe that by praying to the remover of obstructions, people hope to dispel all obstacles from their lives. Some people believe that this was the day Ganesha was born. The most popular belief however, is based on a story in Skanda Purana. Once Ganesha was invited for a feast inChandralok. The god, known for his ravenous appetite, stuffed himself with laddoos. When he got up to walk after the meal, he could not balance because of his huge stomach and stumbled. As he fell, his stomach burst and all the laddoos came rolling out. The moon could not contain himself and began laughing. Enraged, Ganesha cursed the moon, causing him to vanish from the universe. However because of the moon`s absence, the whole world began to wane. So the gods asked Shiva to persuade Ganesha to relent. There pentant moon also apologised for his misbehaviour. On Shiva`s intervention,Ganesha modified his curse. He announced that the moon would be invisible on only one day of a month,and would be partially seen for the most part. It would however, be visible in its full glory only once a month as well. Since the incident occured on the fourth day of Bhadrapad, he also added that anyone who looked at the moon on the fourth day of any month, specially of Bhadrapad, would be falsely accused of some wrong-doing. The day is also called Dagadi Chautha, or `stone-throwing fourth day`, in some places, stemming from the belief that if one inadvertently sees the moon on that night, one should throw stones on his neighbour`s roof to avert any calamity arising from the curse. In Maharashtra, the great festival of Ganesha begins on this day, with his idol being ceremonially installed. The next ten days, before the beginning of the inauspicious dark half of the month, are spent in praying to the god. These days are considered specially auspicious due to Ganesha`s presence in the idol. Vighneshvar, the remover of obstacles, reciprocates by using his powers all through the year. Before the ten-day rite begins, the house and devotees must acquire asuperlative state of purity. This is accomplished by cleaning or white washing the house or at least the place where the idol is to be placed. Worshippers bathe and the priest wears a silken lower garment, usually red, with a shawl around his shoulders.The puja begins at the time designated according to calculations based on the ritual calendar. The ceremony begins by placing the image, usually made of terracotta, in a sacred arena, symbolic of a throne. The worshipper then sipsholy water and performs pranayama; he then bows and prostrates before Ganesha and all the other gods. This is followed by the Sankalpa Mantra. The priest then performs a ritual by which the idol is said to be imbued with life. Next follows the traditional puja. This completes the rituals of the first day. For the remaining days, the image is worshipped, morning and evening with simple recitations of the Ganesha Stuti, devotional songs, offerings of flower sand incense, and lamps. After ten days of ritual worship, the god returns to his heavenly abode and his image is immersed in water. The farewell procession is a pandemonium of musicians, dancers, acrobats, singers, priests, onlookers and numerous Ganesha idols from a number of houses and temples. All join in the procession to the final destination at the ghats of a river or the ocean in Mumbai and other coastal areas. Shouts of `Ganapathi bappa Moraya, Purchya varshi laukariya` or `beloved Ganesha, Lord of Moraya, come again early next year` resound all around. The immersion ritual is simple. Final gifts of coconuts, flowers and burning camphor cubes are offered to the idol, accompanied by the singing of aratis. Then a few people carry it far enough into the river to immerse it, where it quickly dissolves. The immersion marks the end of the ten-day festival. The festival is not just restricted to homes. In fact, most areas in Maharashtra organise their own programmes. The local communities install huge, elaborately decorated statues of the idol in glamorous tents. In some places, the idol is adorned with precious gems and gold, which requires strict police vigil. Other than the ritual worship of the idol, the ten days also feature many cultural activities, including the singing of devotional songs, dramatic performances, dances, films, lectures and speeches by various public figures.Lezam and acrobatics are two of the most popular performances during these ten days.

2008-09-16T20:20:00.000-07:00

DURGA PUJA
The Victory of Good over Evil This nine-day festival of the Hindus is celebrated in the month of Ashvina in Bengal. It marks the victory of Goddess Durga over the buffalo demon Mahishasura after a long battle, signifying the victory of good over evil. Durga Puja is a nine-day festival, celebrated in the state of West Bengal, from the first to the tenth day in the month of Ashvina. This period is celebrated as Navaratri in most parts of India. Durga Puja is the most important and the most eagerly-awaited festival of the state. It commemorates the victory of Durga over the demon Mahishasura. The festival assumed its popular status largely due to the efforts of King Ballal Sen. According to the Markandeya Purana and Devi Purana, Mahishasura was a buffalo demon. After severe penance lasting many years, he procured a boon from Brahma granting that he would not be slain by gods,men, spirits or any aspect of nature. Convinced that he was invincible, he tyrannised the entire world, vanquished the gods and ruled in their place. The gods appealed to Shiva for help. He suggested that the three great gods, Brahma, Vishnu and himself, should combine their energies to create a woman. She would be powerful enough to vanquish the demon, as he had foolishly forgotten to name women while asking for the boon. The three gods then combined their energies to create Durga, a beautiful woman with 18 arms. Her eyes shone like sun rays and her smile was as cool as the moon. Each god presented her with his special weapon and a lion was to beher vehicle. When Mahishasura heard of Durga`s beauty, he wished to marry her and sent across a proposal. Durga replied that she would marry him on condition that he defeat her in battle first. Enraged, Mahishasura accepted the challenge and a fierce battle ensued. The demon fired a barrage of deadly arrows at her, used a variety of weapons, and transformed himself into various animals to attack her. But Durga repulsed every attempt. Finally, using the discus Vishnu had given her, she sliced off his head. Flowers rainedon the goddess as the gods rejoiced. Shiva declared that the ninth day of the bright half of the month of Ashvina would be celebrated as the great day of victory of good over evil. According to local belief, Durga comes to the earth, her parental home, during this time. She arrives on the sixth day of the month and returns to her heavenly abode on the 10th day. For the 4 days that she is here however, she is welcomed and honoured as a family would its married daughter. Preparations for the festival begin many months in advance.

Local artisans are involved in making beautiful clay images of the goddess. Traditionally the images were carved out of white Indian cork, a very difficult technique. Today, cork is only used to make her crown and ornaments. The idol is then adorned in a traditional red sari and ornaments, as befitting a married Hindu woman. Chandmala, a garland of white lotus-like flowers made using white cork, is an essential adornment. Kumartuli and Krishnanagar, two small towns on the outskirts of Calcutta, are very popular sources of Durga idols. Celebrations for the festival span over a period of ten days. It is mostly a community affair and almost every colony or locality in Bengal erects tents for the grand puja. Artisans dole out all their artistic and creative talents to create beautiful tents, which also include replicas of local buildings. In fact the celebrations are not just restricted to Bengal; Durga Puja is celebrated with equal enthusiasm by Bengalis living in all parts of the country. On the first day of the festival, hymns are recited in to invoke the goddess in the heavens. This special recital is known as the Mahalaya. The next five days are spent preparing for the grand yearly visit of ma, or `mother` as Durga is affectionately called in Bengal. On the sixth day, called Mahashashti (the great sixth day), the idol of the goddess is placed on a raised platform in a previously erected enclosure. The goddess is also believed to arrive on the same day, accompanied by her children Ganesha, Kartikeya, Lakshmi and Sarasvati. The priest ceremonially establishes life in the clay image and from now on till the tenth day, the image is treated as the goddess herself. It is obligatory for all worshippers to clean their houses, take a purificatory bath and offer prayers to the goddess adorned in new clothes. Many devotees also observe a fast on this day and break the fast after the evening arati. For the next three days, devotees in the thousands come for darshan of the goddess and to offer prayers to her. Every morning on these four days, flowers are offered to the goddess. Between the eighth and ninth days, Sandhi Puja is performed in which animals are sacrificed in honour of the goddess in many places in Bengal. The ninth day is considered doubly auspicious as the goddess is believed to have been conceived and sent to earth by the gods on this day. The tenth day or Vijayadashmi (thevictorious tenth day) is both a day of joy and sorrow. It was on this day that the goddess slew the demon and rid the earth of his evil, but it is also the?day when she returns home. The idol of the goddess is taken to the river to be immersed on this day. Before the idol is lifted from its home, the priest symbolically immerses the idol, by capturing its reflection in a bowl of water. This is known as darpan visarjan or mirror immersion. Married women now take their last darshan of the goddess. They use the huge amount of specially consecrated sindoora lying around the goddess to anoint the head and the forehead of their married friends and relatives. This is believed to grant along life to their husbands. The priest now ceremonially extracts the `soul` from the image, after which it is lifeless again. This done, huge trucks are organised to lift the now lifeless idol of Durga and take it to be immersed on the edge of the river. The image is accompanied by a procession of dancers, singers and musicians. Anumber of people gather on both sides of the road to witness the event. Shouts of `Durga Mata Ki Jai` (HailMother Durga) and `Aaschey bachar abar hawbey` (She will come again next year) resound the air. With the immersion, the ten-day festivities come to an end. This festival celebrates the victory of good over evil. The yearly visit of the goddess is thought to bring well-being and happiness to the people. Because of her auspicious presence, no meat, wine or alchohol is consumed at this time. Everyone is expected to have new clothes for the festival.

The city of Calcutta almost never sleeps during the last five days. All, irrespective of caste, creed and religion, participate in this great festival giving rise to a brotherly spirit. Many cultural events are also organised during this period. `Dhunuchi nritya` or `the dance with effervescent smoke` is a traditional dance form from Bengal which is performed in front of the idol to the beat of the dhaki, the traditional drums. On the tenth day people visit each other`s houses, the young touching the elder`s feet as a mark of respect and then enjoying the renowned Bengali sweets. The festival fosters a feeling of harmony, joy and peace.

2008-08-22T07:44:00.000-07:00

Vijayadashami

Vijayadashami (Hindi and Marathi: विजयादशमी, Kannada:ವಿಜಯದಶಮಿ), also known as Dussehra (Hindi: दशहरा, Kannada: ದಸರ, Marathi: दसरा), "Dashain" in Nepali, is a festival celebrated across Nepal and India. It is celebrated on the tenth day of the bright half of the Hindu month of Ashwayuja or Ashwina, and is the grand culmination of the 10-day annual festival of Dasara or Navaratri. The legend underlying the celebration, as also its mode of conduct, vary vastly by region; however, all festivities celebrate the victory of the forces of Good over Evil. It is also considered to be an auspicious day to begin new things in life. It is the largest festival of Nepal and celebrated by Hindu and non-Hindu as well.

Significance

In Southern India, Eastern India and Western India, the festival of Navaratri which culminates with Vijayadashami commemorates the legend in which the Goddess Durga, also known as Chamundeshwari or Mahishasura Mardini, vanquishes the demon Mahishasura, an event that is said to have taken place in the vicinity of the present day city of Mysore in Karnataka.

In Northern India, the same 10-day festival commemorates the victory of Rama, prince of Ayodhya in present-day Uttar Pradesh, over Ravana, the ruler of Lanka, who according to the Ramayana had abducted Sita Devi, the wife of the former, and held her captive in his realm.

Legend of the Shami Tree

Here is another and little-known legend associated with this festival, one associated with the Mahabharata. For reasons impossible to delineate here, the Pandavas underwent a period of exile, being 14 years of dwelling in the forest followed by a year of exile incognito. Disguise being indispensable during the latter period, the Pandavas found it necessary to lay aside, for the length of that year, the many divine and distinctive weapons that they possessed^#. These they secreted in a 'Shami' tree in the vicinity^* of their chosen place of incognito residence. At the end of a year, they returned to the spot, found their weaponry intact, and worshipped in thanksgiving both the Shami tree and the Goddess Durga, presiding deity of strength and victory. Meanwhile, the Kauravas had invaded that area, suspecting the residence of the Pandavas there. Upon finishing their devotions, the Pandavas made straight to battle, and won the contest comprehensively. The day that all these events occurred on has since been known as "Vijayadashami", where "Vijaya" is the Sanskrit word for "Victory".

The fact of the comprehensive success of the Pandavas in their endeavour has been extrapolated to the everyday ventures of the common man today. Even to this day, people exchange Shami leaves and wish each other victory in their own ventures and efforts.

Celebration

Ravana effigy being burnt in Hyderabad

In Northern India, the festival commemorates the victory of Rama, prince of Ayodhya and avatara of Vishnu, over Ravana, the ruler of Lanka who had abducted Rama's wife, Sita Devi. The festival is celebrated with much gusto. Crackers are burnt, and huge melas or fetes are organised. The Ramlila - an abriged dramatization of the Ramayana - is enacted with much public fervour all over northern India during the period of the festivities. The burning of the effigies of Ravana on Vijayadashami, signifying the victory of good over evil, brings the festivities to a colourful close. In some regions, Sikhs and Hindus celebrate Vijayadashami together.

The legend associated with the Shami tree finds commemoration during the renowned Navaratri celebrations at Mysore, which otherwise strongly emphasizes the Durga legend described above, as may be expected in the city built at the very site of the events of the Durga legend. On Vijaydashami day, at the culmination of a colourful 10-day celebration, the goddess Chamundeshwari is worshipped and then borne in a Golden Ambari or elephant-mounted throne, in a grand procession, through the city of Mysore, from the historical Mysore Palace to the Banni Mantapa. Banni is the Kannada word for the Sanskrit Shami, and Mantapa means "Pavilion".

In Karnataka, Ayudh Puja, the ninth day of Dasara, is celebrated with the worship of implements used in daily life such as computers, books, vehicles, kitchen tools etc.

It is an effort to see the divine in the tools and objects one uses in daily life. Basically it includes all tools that help one earn one's livelihood. So knowledge workers go for books, pen or computers, plough and other agricultural tools by the farmer, machinery by industrialists and cars/buses/trucks by transporters are decorated with flowers and worshiped on this day invoking God's blessing for success in coming years. It is believed that any new venture such as starting of business or purchasing of new household items on this day is bound to succeed.

In Madikeri Dasara is celebrated in a different style.Madikeri Dasara has an history of over 100 years. Here Dasara starts of with Kargas from four Mariamma Temples. There will be a procession of 10 Mantapas from 10 Temples on the night of Vijayadashami.

At night, effigies of Ravana, Kumbhakaran and Meghanad are stuffed with firecrackers and set alight. Children especially enjoy seeing this because of the beautiful fireworks on the ground. The festival, which is thought of as the "Victory of Good over Evil" and "Return of Rama from Exile" is celebrated in grand style. Because the day is auspicious, people inaugurate new vehicles, machines, books, weapons and tools by ceremonially asking god to bless the new items.

History

This day marks the triumph of Lord Rama over Demon king Ravana. On this day, Rama killed Ravana.

Rama was asked to go on exile because his stepmother, Queen Kaikeyee was tricked into asking King Dasaratha to exile him for 14 years. Rama's wife Sita, and his brother Lakshmana went with him willingly.

News of Rama staying at an ashram while on exile spread rapidly. A demon, Shoorpanakha found her way there and demanded that Rama or Lakshmana marry her. When both brothers rejected her, she threatened to kill Sita, so that Rama would then be single again. Lakshmana then cut off her ears and nose.

Shoorpanakha's brother was the demon King Ravana. Ravana was incensed to hear what happened to his sister, and kidnapped Sita to avenge the insult.

The Ramayana chronicles Rama's travels and deeds as he searched for his wife, and defeated evil.

Variations across South Asia

Dussehra is celebrated in various ways in different parts of South Asia. In Bengal, the festival is celebrated as Kali Puja or Durga Puja, while in Tamil Nadu, the festival incorporates worship of the goddesses Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Shakti.

Some people feel that Dussehra and Dasara are not simply different transliterations of the same word, but two different festivals.

Dasara is the festival marking end of Navratri and the immersion of Durga idols which are worshipped for nine days prior to Dussehra. Dussehra is also the day when many families start formal education of their kids. The practise has been so old, that in some parts of Kerala, even after conversions to Christianity, some members of the community continued this tradition. In 2004, many churches in Kerala formally adopted the same tradition of introducing young children to education on Dussehra day.

The Dasara celebrations in Mysore are popular with tourists, and are conducted with great pomp. Dasara is celebrated in Nepal by the name of Dashain.

Holi

Holi (Hindi), or Phagwa (Bhojpuri), also called the Festival of Colours, is a popular Hindu spring festival observed in India, Guyana, Trinidad, and Nepal. In West Bengal, it is known as Dolyatra (Doljatra) or Boshonto Utsav ("spring festival").

On the first day, burning of the demoness Holika, Hiranyakashipu's sister, in a huge bonfires at night. It is called as Kama dahanam in Andhra Pradesh.

On the second day, known as Dhulhendi, people spend the day throwing colored powder and water at each other. The spring season, during which the weather changes, is believed to cause viral fever and cold. Thus, the playful throwing of the colored powders has a medicinal significance: the colors are traditionally made of Neem, Kumkum, Haldi, Bilva, and other medicinal herbs prescribed by Āyurvedic doctors. A special drink called thandai is prepared, sometimes containing bhang (Cannabis sativa).

Rangapanchami occurs a few days later on a Panchami (fifth day of the full moon), marking the end of festivities involving colours.

Holi takes place over two days in the later part of February or March. As per the Hindu calendar, it falls on the Phalgun Purnima (or Pooranmashi, Full Moon), which will occur on March 22 in 2008. On the first day (22 March 2008 CE), symbolic burning of evil takes place, while the fun part of playing with colors takes place on the second day. (In 2007, Holi was celebrated on 3 March, the burning of Holika was on 4 March and the Dhuleti on 5 March.)

Significance

A painting from the collection of the Smithsonian Institution depicting Indian deity Krishna celebrating holi with Radha and the Gopis.

In Vaishnava Theology, Hiranyakashipu is the king of demons, and he had been granted a boon by Brahma, which made it almost impossible for him to be killed. The boon was due to his long penance, after which he had demanded that he not be killed "during day or night; inside the home or outside, not on earth or on sky; neither by a man nor an animal; neither by astra nor by shastra". Consequently, he grew arrogant, and attacked the Heavens and the Earth. He demanded that people stop worshipping gods and start praying to him.

Despite this, Hiranyakashipu's own son, Prahlad, was a devotee of Lord Vishnu. In spite of several threats from Hiranyakashipu, Prahlad continued offering prayers to Lord Vishnu. He was poisoned but the poison turned to nectar in his mouth. He was ordered to be trampled by elephants yet remained unharmed. He was put in a room with hungry, poisonous snakes and survived. All of Hiranyakashipu's attempts to kill his son failed. Finally, he ordered young Prahlad to sit on a pyre on the lap of his sister, Holika, who could not die by fire by virtue of a shawl which would prevent fire affecting the person wearing it. Prahlad readily accepted his father's orders, and prayed to Vishnu to keep him safe. When the fire started, everyone watched in amazement as the shawl flew from Holika, who then was burnt to death, while Prahlad survived unharmed, after the shawl moved to cover him. The burning of Holika is celebrated as Holi.

Later Lord Vishnu came in the form of a Narasimha (who is half-man and half-lion) and killed Hiranyakashipu at dusk (which was neither day nor night), on the steps of the porch of his house (which was neither inside the house nor outside) by restraining him on his lap (which is neither in the sky nor on the earth) and mauling him with his claws (which are neither astra nor shastra).

In Vrindavan and Mathura, where Lord Krishna grew up, the festival is celebrated for 16 days (until Rangpanchmi in commemoration of the divine love of Radha for Krishna). Lord Krishna is believed to have popularized the festival by playing pranks on the gopis here. Krishna is believed to have complained to his mother about the contrast between his dark colour and his consort Radha's fair colour. Krishna's mother decided to apply colour to Radha's face. The celebrations officially usher in spring, the celebrated season of love.

There is another story about the origin of holi. Kamadeva is a god of love. Kama's body was destroyed when he shot his weapon at Shiva in order to disrupt his penance and help Parvati to marry Shiva. Shiva then opened his third eye, the gaze of which was so powerful that Kama's body was reduced to ashes. For the sake of Kama's wife Rati (passion), Shiva restored him, but only as a mental image, representing the true emotional and mental state of love rather than physical lust. The Holi bonfire is believed to be celebrated in commemoration of this event.

Holi is a festival of radiance (Tej) in the universe. During this festival, different waves of radiance traverse the universe, thereby creating various colours that nourish and complement the function of respective elements in the atmosphere.

Rituals of Holi

Holi is a very important festival.In this festival main emphasis is laid on the burning of Holika or lighting of Holi. The origin of the traditional lighting of Holi is attributed by some to the burning of demonesses like Holika, Holaka and Putana who troubled little children or to the burning of Madan according to others.

Regional rituals and celebrations

Three women having played Holi with colors, share some happy moments afterwards.

Dol Purnima (Rang Panchami), the festival of colour is celebrated in all over the country with great festivity and joy. On this day, people come out wearing pure white clothes and gather together in a common place where they play it with gay abandon.

Kolkata: In Shantiniketan the abode of Tagore celebrates Dol in a unique way. It welcome the season 'Basanta' with music and dance and early morning 'Path'. Young girls wear yellow saris and perform dance in around the 'ashram' to the song of Tagore's 'Khol dar khol'.

Bengalis celebrate Holi as Dol Yatra or the swing festival where the icons of Krishna and Radha are placed on swings and women sing devotional songs, throw colors and 'abir' on them and perform dances as devotees take turns to swing them

Traditional delicacies are prepared in advance and served while playing Dol Purnima. People visit each others houses and savor the delicious dishes, be it the famous Rossogolla or the preparation of 'Malpoa' (a dessert made of flour, milk, sugar and dry fruits). The colour, noise and entertainment that accompanies the celebration of Dol Purnima bears witness to the feelings of oneness and a sense of brotherhood and goodwill. The spring air is still cool, the water cold, but revelers make a special punch of an intoxicant called bhang, which is mixed in milk, to add to the festivities.

Mathura: In Mathura, the birth place of Lord Krishna, this day is celebrated with special puja and the traditional custom of worshipping Lord Krishna.

Orissa: The people of Orissa celebrate Holi in a similar manner but here the idols of Jagannath, the deity of the Jagannath Temple of Puri, replace the idols of Krishna and Radha.

Gujarat: Festival of colours, Holi is celebrated with great fanfare in the Gujarat state of India. Falling on the full moon day in the month of Phalguna, Holi is a major Hindu festival and marks the agricultural season of the Rabi crop. Bonfire is also lit in the main squares of the villages, localities and colonies. People collect at the time of bonfire and celebrate the event, which is symbolic of the victory of good over evil by singing and dancing. Tribals of Gujarat celebrate Holi in great enthusiasm and dance around the fire.

Maharashtra: In Maharashtra, Holi is mainly associated with the burning of Holika. Holi Paurnima is also celebrated as Shimga. A week before the festival, youngsters go around the locality, collecting firewood and money. On the day of Holi, the firewood is arranged in a huge pile at a clearing in the locality. In the evening, the fire is lit. Every household makes an offering of sweets and a complete meal to the fire god. Puran Poli is the main delicacy and children shout " Holi re Holi puranachi poli ". Shimga is associated with the elimination of all evil. Fun of playing with colors traditionally takes place on the day of Ranga Panchami unlike North India where it is done on the second day itself.

Manipur: Manipuris in northeastern part of India celebrate Holi for six days. Introduced in the eighteenth century with Vaishnavism, it soon merged with the centuries-old festival of Yaosang. Traditionally, youths at night perform a group folk dance called 'thaabal chongba' on the full moon night of Phalgun along with folk songs and rhythmic beats of the indigenous drum. However, this moonlight party now has modern bands and fluorescent lamps and a bonfire of a thatched hut of hay and twigs is arranged. Boys have to pay money to the girls for playing 'gulal' with them. In Krishna temples, devotees sing devotional songs, perform dances and play 'gulal' wearing traditional white and yellow turbans. On the last day of the festival, large processions are taken out to the main Krishna temple near Imphal where several cultural programs are organized.

North and West India : In North India, Haryana, Maharashtra and Ahmedabad in Gujarat, a pot of buttermilk is hung high on the streets and young boys try to reach it and break it by making human pyramids while the girls try to stop them by throwing colored water on them to commemorate the pranks of Krishna and cowherd boys to steal butter and 'gopis' trying to stop them. At this time the men soaked with colors go out in large procession to mock alert people of the Krishna who might come to steal butter in their homes. The boy who finally manages to break the pot is crowned the Holi King of the Year for that community.

At some places, there is a custom in the undivided Hindu families that the women of the families beat their brother-in-law with her sari rolled up into a rope in a mock rage as they try to drench them with colors and in turn the brother-in-law bring sweetmeats for her in the evening.

South India: Holi down south is largely an outcome of the influence of media, movies, marketing and migration. But in Kochi(Cochin) the Gujarathi and other North Indian communities based in Mattancherry celebrate Holi with original fervor. In Mattancherry area of Kochi, there are 22 different communities living together in harmony. Moreover, the Gaud Sarawat Brahmins(GSB)who speak Konkani also celebrate Holi in Cherlai area of West Kochi. They locally call it as Ukkuli in Konkani or Manjal Kuli in Malayalam. It is held around the majestic Konkani temple called Gosripuram Thirumala temple. This year Ukkuli will be celebrated on March 23, 2008 in Cherlai. In Hyderabad, Holi is celebrated with great fervor, it is celebrated over 2 days.

Kashmir: Civilians as well as the Indian security force officers celebrate Holi in Kashmir. Holi, a high-spirited festival to mark the beginning of the harvesting of the summer crop, is marked by the throwing of colored water and powder and singing and dancing.

Holi Folk Song

This folk song is actually a 'bhajan' (devotional song) composed by Mira Bai, the famous devotee of Lord Krishna.

Syama Piya More Rangade Chunariya

Syama piya more rangade chunariya

Aisi rangade ke ranga nahi chhute Dhobiya dhoye chahe yeh sari umaria

Lal na rangaun main, hari na rangaun Apane hi ranga mein rangade chunariya

Bina rangaye main to ghar nahi jaungi Beet hi jaye chahe yeh sari umariya

Jal se patala kaun hai Kaun bhumi se bhari Kaun agana se tej hai Kaun kajala se kari

Jala se patala jnana hai Aur pap bhumi se bhari Krodha agana se teja hai Aur ik kalana kajala se kari

Mira ke prabhu giridhara nagara Prabhu charanana mein Hari charanana mein Syama charanana mein lagi najaria

Holi gifts and gift ideas

Gifts play an important role in Holi. Holi is a festival of fun, romance and brotherhood. A box of Sweets and Gujjias go in the mood with this fun festival and are one of the most popular gifts of Holi. White dress for Holi, especially the crisp cotton 'chikan' salwar-suit for girls and kurta-payjama for boys look beautiful, worn after the hours-long bath following the play of colors. The marked contrast of the still-stained faces and bodies and milky white fabric of the traditional Indian dresses look beautiful. Other gifts popular on Holi are the packets of color and bright-colored flowers.

You can give the personal touch and impress the receiver of your Holi presents by your thoughtfulness and personal attention by buying them anything that they have been craving for months. Businessmen handing out corporate gifts to their employees, clients and partners generally opt for executive diaries, calendars or household items such as bed sheets and kitchen gadgets. Kids love colored hats and latest sprinklers in the market. Other creative Holi gift ideas can be home decoration items and beautiful flower arrangements such as baskets and bouquets. Whatever you may give, it is actually the genuineness, the thought behind the gift and the smile that you have on your face while giving out the gift that really counts.

Health hazards

Originally, the colours that were used to celebrate Holi, came from the flowers of trees that blossomed during Spring, such as the Indian Coral Tree and the Flame of the Forest, both of which have bright red flowers. These and several other blossoms provided the raw material from which the brilliant shades of Holi colours were made. Most of these trees also had medicinal properties and were beneficial to the skin. Over the years, with the disappearance of trees in urban areas, these natural colours came to be replaced by industrial dyes manufactured through chemical processes. Around 2001, two environmental groups called Toxics link and Vatavaran based in Delhi, did a study on the contents of these chemical colours and published its results in a fact sheet on Holi. This research revealed that Holi colours come in three forms; pastes, dry colours and water colours.

The pastes contain very toxic chemicals that can have severe health effects as follows:

Black contains lead oxide and can cause renal failure.
Green contains copper sulphate and can cause eye allergy, puffiness and temporary blindness.
Silver contains aluminium bromide which is carcinogenic.
Blue contains prussian blue which can lead to contact dermatitis.
Red contains mercury sulphate which is highly toxic and can cause skin cancer.

The dry colours, commonly known as gulals, have two components – a colourant that is toxic and a base which could be either asbestos or silica, both of which cause health problems. Heavy metals contained in the colourants can cause asthma, skin diseases and temporary blindness.

Wet colours, mostly use gentian violet as a colour concentrate which can cause skin discolouration and dermatitis.

These days, Holi colours are sold loosely, on the roads, by hawkers who often do not know the source. Sometimes, the colours come in boxes that specifically mention For industrial use only.

Playing a Natural Holi in Pune

Following the publication of these studies several environmental groups took up the cause to encourage people to return to a more natural way of celebrating Holi. Amongst these, Navdanya, Delhi published a book called Abir Gulal, which spoke of the biodiversity that was the source of natural colours. Groups such as Development Alternatives, Delhi and Kalpavriksh, Pune have developed educational tools to teach children simple ways of making their own natural Holi colours. The CLEAN India campaign has been teaching children how to make beautiful natural colours. There are a few companies in India who have responded well to this and have developed "Herbal" Gulal. For instance, Lucknow based National Botanical Research Institute has started selling these bio-favourable gulals. But while a normal Gula packet costs around 10Rs, this one costs 30rs.

The Holi bonfire

The burning of fuel wood to create the bonfire for Holika dahan presents another serious environmental problem. According to a news article, studies done in the state of Gujarat reveal that each bonfire uses around 100 kg of wood, and considering that approximately 30,000 bonfires are lit in the state of Gujarat just for one season, this leads to a staggering amount of wood.

Groups such as Sadvichar Parivar are now advocating one symbolic community fire, rather than several smaller bonfires across the city as a way to reduce wood consumption. Others are also suggesting that these fires be lit using waste material rather than wood.

Indian Festivals

2008-08-22T07:35:00.000-07:00

Hindus celebrate a number of Festivals all through the year. From celebrating the advent of spring to celebrating the win of good over evil, Hindu religion and culture provide its followers endless reasons to celebrate. Given below is the list of just a few of these festivals that are celebrated with great zest and fervor.

Vesak

Vesak is an annual holiday observed by practicing Buddhists in many Asian countries like Thailand, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Vietnam, and also Indonesia, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.

In Indian Mahayana Buddhist traditions, the holiday is known by its Sanskrit equivalent, Vaiśākha. The word Vesak itself is the Sinhalese language word (වෙසක්) for the Pali variation, "Vesākha". Vesak is also known as Visaka Bochea in Cambodia, Visakah Puja, Buddha Purnima or Buddha Jayanti in India, Bangladesh and Nepal, Visakha Bucha in Thailand, Phật Đản in Vietnam, Waisak in Indonesia, Vesak (Wesak) in Sri Lanka and Malaysia, 佛誕 (fó dàn) in Chinese-speaking countries, and Saga Dawa in Tibet. The equivalent festival in Laos is called Vixakha Bouxa and in Myanmar is called Ka-sone-la-pyae meaning Fullmoon Day of Kasone which is also the second month of the Myanmar Calendar.

The exact date of Vesak varies according to the various lunar calendars used in different traditions. In Theravada countries following the Buddhist calendar, it falls on the full moon Uposatha day (typically the 5th or 6th lunar month). In China it is the fourth month in the Chinese lunar calendar, coinciding with the first full moon of that month. The date varies from year to year in the Western Gregorian calendar but falls in April or May.

Sometimes informally called "Buddha's birthday," it actually encompasses the birth, enlightenment Nirvana, and passing (Parinirvana) of Gautama Buddha.

The celebration of Vesak

May 2007 had two full moon days, the 1st and the 31st. Some countries (including Sri Lanka, Cambodia and Malaysia) celebrated Vesak on the 1st, while others (Thailand, Singapore) celebrated the holiday on the 31st.

On Vesak day, devout Buddhists and followers alike are expected and requested to assemble in their various temples before dawn for the ceremonial, and honorable, hoisting of the Buddhist flag and the singing of hymns in praise of the holy triple gem: The Buddha, The Dharma (his teachings), and The Sangha (his disciples). Devotees may bring simple offerings of flowers, candles and joss-sticks to lay at the feet of their teacher. These symbolic offerings are to remind followers that just as the beautiful flowers would wither away after a short while and the candles and joss-sticks would soon burn out, so too is life subject to decay and destruction. Devotees are enjoined to make a special effort to refrain from killing of any kind. They are encouraged to partake of vegetarian food for the day. In some countries, notably Sri Lanka, two days are set aside for the celebration of Vesak and all liquor shops and slaughter houses are closed by government decree during the two days. Also birds, insects and animals are released by the thousands in what is known as a 'symbolic act to liberation'; of giving freedom to those who are in captivity, imprisoned, or tortured against their will. Some devout Buddhists will wear a simple white dress and spend the whole day in temples with renewed determination to observe the observance of the Ten Precepts.

Young novice on Vesak Day Parade

Devout Buddhists undertake to lead a noble life according to the teaching by making daily affirmations to observe the eight Precepts. However, on special days, notably new moon and full moon days, they observe additional disciplines to train themselves to practice morality, simplicity and humility.

Some temples also display a small image of the baby Buddha in front of the altar in a small basin filled with water and decorated with flowers, allowing devotees to pour water over the statue; it is symbolic of the events following the Buddha's birth, when devas and spirits made heavenly offerings to him.

The Ten Precepts are:

Not to kill
Not to steal
Not to engage in improper sexual activity
Not to indulge in wrong speech
Not to take intoxicating drinks and drugs
To abstain from taking food at unreasonable times
To refrain from sensual pleasures such as dancing, singing and self-adornment
To refrain from using high and luxurious seats in order to practice humility.
To refrain from wearing scent or garlands
To refrain from handling gold or silver so as not to incite greed

Devotees are expected to listen to talks given by monks. On this day monks will recite verses uttered by the Buddha twenty-five centuries ago, to invoke peace and happiness for the Government and the people. Buddhists are reminded to live in harmony with people of other faiths and to respect the beliefs of other people as the Buddha had taught.

Diwali

iwali, or Deepavali, (also called Tihar and Swanti in Nepal) (Markiscarali) is a major Indian and Nepalese festival, and a significant festival in Hinduism, Sikhism and Jainism. Many legends are associated with Diwali. Today it is celebrated by Hindus, Jains and Sikhs across the globe as the "Festival of Light," where the lights or lamps signify victory of good over the evil within every human being . The festival is also celebrated by Buddhists of Nepal, particularly the Newar Buddhists.

According to one theory Diwali may have originated as a harvest festival, marking the last harvest of the year before winter. In an agrarian society this results in businessmen closing accounts, and beginning a new accounting year. The deity of wealth in Hinduism, goddess Lakshmi is therefore thanked on this day and everyone prays for a good year ahead. This is the common factor in Diwali celebrations all over the Indian subcontinent.

In North India, it is the homecoming of King Rama of Ayodhya after a 14-year exile in the forest. The people of Ayodhya (the capital of his kingdom) welcomed Rama by lighting rows (avali) of lamps (deepa), thus its name, Deepawali, or simply shortened as Diwali. Southern India marks it as the day Lord Krishna defeated the demon Narakasura. In western India it is also in honor of the day King Bali went to rule the nether-world by the order of Vishnu. (There is another festival 'Onam' which is celebrated in Kerala around the month of August to mark this legend)

Diwali comes in the month of October or November.

In Jainism it marks the nirvana of Lord Mahavira, which occurred on Oct. 15, 527 B.C. The Sikhs have always celebrated Diwali; however, its significance for Sikhs increased when, on this day, the Sixth Guru, Guru Hargobind Ji, was freed from imprisonment along with 52 Hindu Kings (political prisoners) whom he had arranged to be released as well. In India, Diwali is now considered to be a national festival, and the aesthetic aspect of the festival is enjoyed by most Indians regardless of faith.

Significance in Hinduism

Oil lamps on the eve of Diwali.

The festival marks the victory of good over evil, and uplifting of spiritual darkness. Symbolically it marks the homecoming of goodwill and faith after an absence, as suggested by the story of Ramayana.

On the day of Diwali, many wear new clothes and share sweets and snacks. Some North Indian business communities start their financial year on Diwali and new account books are opened on this day.

Stories

Hindus have several significant mythological events associated with it:

Return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya: Diwali also celebrates the return of Lord Rama, King of Ayodhya, with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana to Ayodhya after a 14 year exile, and a war in which he killed the demon king Ravana. It is believed that the people of Ayodhya lit oil lamps along the way to light their path in the darkness. Since Lord Rama traveled from South India to his kingdom in North India, he passed through the south earlier. This is the reason why the festival is celebrated a day earlier in South India. In North India, the festival is held on the final day of the Vikram calendar. The following day marks the beginning of the North Indian new year, and is called Annakut.
The Killing of Narakasura: Celebrated as Naraka Chaturdasi, two days before Diwali day, it commemorates the killing of Narakasura, an evil demon who created havoc, by Lord Krishna's wife Satyabhama. This happened in the Dwapar Yuga during this time of Lord Krishna's avatar. In another version, the demon was killed by Lord Krishna (Lord krishna provokes his wife Satyabhama to kill Narakasura by pretending to be injured by the demon. Narakasura can only be killed by his mother, Satyabhama) himself.^{[citation needed]} Before Narakasura's death, he requested a boon from his mother, Satyabhama (believed to be an Avatar of Bhudevi - Narakasura' mother), that everyone should celebrate his death with colorful light.
Austerities of Shakti: According to the Skanda Purana, the goddess Shakti observed 21 days of austerity starting from ashtami of shukla paksha (eighth day of the waxing period of moon) to get half of the body of Lord Shiva. This vrata (austerity) is known as kedhara vrata. Deepavali is the completion day of this austerity. This is the day Lord Shiva accepted Shakti into the left half of the form and appeared as Ardhanarishvara. The ardent devotees observe this 21 days vrata by making a kalasha with 21 threads on it and 21 types of offerings for 35 days. The final day is celebrated as kedhara gauri vrata.
Krishna defeating Indra: Govardhan Puja is celebrated the day after Diwali. It is the day Lord Krishna defeated Indra, the deity of thunder and rain. As per the story, Krishna saw huge preparations for the annual offering to Lord Indra and questions his father Nanda about it. He debated with the villagers about what their 'dharma' truly was. They were farmers, they should do their duty and concentrate on farming and protection of their cattle. He continued to say that all human beings should merely do their 'karma', to the best of their ability and not pray for natural phenomenon. The villagers were convinced by Krishna, and did not proceed with the special puja (prayer). Indra was then angered, and flooded the village. Krishna then lifted Mt Govardhan and held it up as protection to his people and cattle from the rain. Indra finally accepted defeat and recognized Krishna as supreme. This aspect of Krishna's life is mostly glossed over - but it actually set up the basis of the 'karma' philosophy later detailed in the Bhagavat Gita.
Bali's return to the nether world:In Bhavishyottara and Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Diwali is associated with the Daitya king Bali, who is allowed to return to earth once a year. However in Kerala this is the reason 'Onam' is celebrated. 'Onam' festival falls around the month of August-September.

Spiritual Significance

Hindu puja on the eve of Diwali.

While Deepavali is popularly known as the "festival of lights", the most significant spiritual meaning is "the awareness of the inner light".

Central to Hindu philosophy is the assertion that there is something beyond the physical body and mind which is pure, infinite, and eternal, called the Atman. Just as we celebrate the birth of our physical being, Deepavali is the celebration of this Inner Light, in particular the knowing of which outshines all darkness (removes all obstacles and dispels all ignorance), awakening the individual to one's true nature, not as the body, but as the unchanging, infinite, immanent and transcendent reality. With the realization of the Atman comes universal compassion, love, and the awareness of the oneness of all things (higher knowledge). This brings Ananda (Inner Joy or Peace).

Diwali celebrates this through festive fireworks, lights, flowers, sharing of sweets, and worship. While the story behind Deepavali varies from region to region, the essence is the same - to rejoice in the Inner Light (Atman) or the underlying reality of all things (Brahman).

The six days

Diwali celebrations are spread over six days in most of North India and Maharashtra. All the days except Diwali are named according to their designation in the Hindu calendar.

Diwali being festival of lights, across India people celebrate it via symbolic diyas or kandils (colorful paper lanterns) as an integral part of Diwali decorations.

Vasu Baras: Baras means 12th day and vasu means cow. On this day cow and calf is worshipped. Since it is believed that cow is symbol of God, Diwali is begun by worshipping cow and calf.
Dhanatrayodashi or Dhan teras: Dhan means "wealth" and Trayodashi means "13th day". Thus, as the name implies, this day falls on the 13th day of the second half of the lunar month. It is an auspicious day for shopping of utensils and gold.This day is also regarded as the Jayanti of God Dhanvantri who came out during the churning of the great ocean by the gods and the demons. Dhanvantri Jayanti
Naraka Chaturdashi: Chaturdashi is the fourteenth day on which demon Narakasura was killed. It signifies the victory of good over evil and light over darkness (Gujarati: Kali Chaudas).
In south India, this is the actual day of festivities. Hindus wake up way before dawn as early as 2:00 in the morning, have a fragrant oil bath and wear new clothes. They light small lamps all around the house and draw elaborate kolams /rangolis outside their homes. They perform a special puja with offerings to Lord Sri Krishna or Lord Sri Vishnu, as he liberated the world from the demon Narakasura on this day. It is believed that taking a bath before sunrise, when the stars are still visible in the sky is equivalent to taking a bath in the holy Ganges. Hence, when people greet each other in the morning, they ask "Have you performed your Ganga Snaanam?".
After the puja, children burst firecrackers heralding the defeat of the demon. As this is a day of rejoicing, many will have very elaborate breakfasts and lunches and meet family and friends. In the evening, lamps are again lit and Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped and offered special dishes. This being a no moon day, many will offer special tarpana (offerings of water and sesame seeds) to their ancestors. This day is also called as Roop Chaturdashi
Lakshmi Puja: Lakshmi Puja marks the most important day of Diwali celebrations. Hindu homes worship Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, and Ganesh, the God of auspicious beginnings, and then light lamps all across the streets and homes to welcome prosperity and wellbeing.
Govardhan Puja : Also called Annakut, is celebrated as the day Krishna defeated Indra. Lord Krishna taught people to worship nature, as mountains bring rains to earth. That was the reason to stop worshiping Indra. His was the message that we should take care of our nature. For Annakut a mountain of food is decorated symbolizing Govardhan mountain lifted by Lord Krishna. In Maharashtra it is celebrated as Padva or BaliPratipada. The day commemorates King Bali. Men present gifts to their wives on this day.In Gujarat, it is celebrated as New Year, as Vikram Samvat starts on this day.
Bhaiduj (also Bhayyaduj, Bhaubeej or Bhayitika) : on this day, brothers and sisters meet to express their love and affection for each other (Gujarati: Bhai Bij, Bengali: Bhai Phota). Most Indian festivals bring together families, Bhaiduj brings together married sisters and brothers, and is a significant festive day for them. This festival is ancient, and pre-dates 'Raksha Bandhan' another brother-sister festival celebrated in the present day.

Lakshmi Puja

Diwali marks the end of the harvest season in most of India. Farmers are thankful for the plentiful bounty of the year gone by, and pray for a good harvest for the year to come. Traditionally this marked the closing of accounts for businesses dependent on the agrarian cycle, and the last major celebration before winter. The deity of Lakshmi symbolizes wealth and prosperity, and her blessings are invoked for a good year ahead. There are two legends that associate the worship of Goddess Lakshmi on this day. According to first one, on this day, Goddess Lakshmi emerged from Kshira Sagar, the Ocean of Milk, during the great churning of the oceans, Samudra manthan. The second legend(more popular in western India) relates to the Vamana avatar of Vishnu, the incarnation he took to kill the demon king Bali, thereafter it was on this day, that Vishnu came back to his abode, the Vaikuntha, so those who worship Lakshmi (Vishnu's consort) on this day, get the benefit of her benevolent mood, and are blessed with mental, physical and material well-being.^[4]

As per spiritual references, on this day "Lakshmi-panchayatan" enters the Universe. Sri Vishnu, Sri Indra, Sri Kuber, Sri Gajendra and Sri Lakshmi are elements of this "panchayatan" (a group of five). The tasks of these elements are:

Vishnu: Happiness (happiness and satisfaction)
Indra: Opulence (satisfaction due to wealth)
Kubera: Wealth (Generosity; one who gives away wealth)
Gajendra: Carries the wealth
Lakshmi: Divine Energy (Shakti) which provides energy to all the above activities.^[5]

In Jainism

Replica of Pava temple at Pansara. Mahavira attained Nirvana at Pava.

Diwali has a very special significance in Jainism, just like Buddha Purnima, the date of Buddha's Nirvana, is for Buddhists as Christmas is for Christians. Lord Mahavira, the last of the Jain Tirthankaras, attained Nirvana or Moksha on this day at Pavapuri on Oct. 15, 527 BCE, on Chaturdashi of Kartika, as Tilyapannatti of Yativrashaba from the sixth century states:

Lord Mahavira is responsible for establishing the Dharma followed by Jains even today. According to tradition, the chief disciple of Mahavira, Ganadhara Gautam Swami also attained complete knowledge (Kevalgyana) on this day, thus making Diwali one of the most important Jain festivals.

Lord Mahavira attained his nirvana at the dawn of the amavasya (new moon). According to the Kalpasutra by Acharya Bhadrabahu, 3rd century BC, many gods were presentthaer, illuminating the darkness. The following night was pitch black without the light of the gods or the moon. To symbolically keep the light of their master's knowledge alive.

16 Gana-kings, 9 Malla and 9 Lichchhavi, of Kasi and Kosal, illuminated their doors. They said: "Since the light of knowledge is gone, we will make light of ordinary matter" ("गये से भवुज्जोये, दव्वुज्जोयं करिस्समो").

Deepavali was first mentioned in Jain books as the date of the nirvana of Lord Mahavira. In fact, the oldest reference to Diwali is a related word, dipalikaya or deepalikaya, which occurs in Harivamsha-Purana, written by Acharya Jinasena ^[7]and composed in the Shaka Samvat era in the year 705.

ततस्तुः लोकः प्रतिवर्षमादरत् प्रसिद्धदीपलिकयात्र भारते |
समुद्यतः पूजयितुं जिनेश्वरं जिनेन्द्र-निर्वाण विभूति-भक्तिभाक् |२० |
tatastuh lokah prativarsham-aadarat
prasiddha-deepalikaya-aatra bharate
samudyatah poojayitum jineshvaram
jinendra-nirvana vibhuti-bhaktibhak

Translation: The gods illuminated Pavanagari by lamps to mark the occasion. Since that time, the people of Bharat celebrate the famous festival of "Dipalika" to worship the Jinendra (i.e. Lord Mahavira) on the occasion of his nirvana.

Deepalikaya roughly translates as "light leaving the body". Dipalika, which can be roughly translated as "splenderous light of lamps", is used interchangeably with the word "Diwali".

The way Jains celebrate Diwali is different in many respects. There is a note of asceticism in whatever the Jains do, and the celebration of Diwali is not an exception. The Jains celebrate Diwali during the month of Kartik for three days. During this period, among the Shvetambaras, devoted Jains observe fasting and chant the Uttaradhyayan Sutra, which contain the final pravachans of Lord Mahavira, and meditate upon him. Some Jains visit Pavapuri in Bihar where he attained Nirvan. In may temples special laddus are offered particularly on this day.

Vira Nirvana Samvat: The Jain year starts with Pratipada following Diwali. Vira Nirvana Samvat 2534 starts with Diwali 2007. The Jain businesspeople traditionally started their accounting year from Diwali. The relationship between the Vir and Shaka era is given in Titthogali Painnaya and Dhavalaa by Acharya Virasena:
पंच य मासा पंच य वास छच्चेव होन्ति वाससया|
परिणिव्वुअस्स अरिहितो तो उप्पन्नो सगो राया||

Thus the Nirvana occurred 605 years and 5 months before the Saka era.

On 21st October 1974 1974 the 2500th Nirvana Mahotsava was celebrated by all the Jain throughout India^[8].

Significance in Sikhism

The story of Diwali for the Sikhs is a story of the Sikh struggle for freedom. From the time of Guru Nanak (1469 – 1539), the founder of Sikhism, popular seasonal or folk festivals like the harvest festival of Baisakhi, or previously ancient Hindu festivals such as Holi and Diwali began to take on a new significance for the Guru’s students, the Sikhs. The Guru used these festivals and special days e.g. first day of each lunar month, as symbols or pegs for his teaching themes. The enlightened ideology of Guru Nanak gave new significance to ancient festivals like Diwali and Baisakhi

Bandi Chhorh Divas

Shri Darbar Sahib, Amritsar being lit up for Diwali.

For Sikhs, Diwali is particularly important because it celebrates the release from prison of the sixth guru, Guru Hargobind Ji, (hence also called "Bandi Chhorh Diwas" or "the day of release of detainees") and 52 other princes with him, from the Gwalior Fort in 1619.

The Sikh tradition holds that the Mughal Emperor Jahangir had imprisoned Guru Hargobind and 52 other rajas (princes). Emperor Jahangir had imprisoned the sixth Guru because he was afraid of the Guru's growing following and power. The Emperor was asked to release Guru Hargobind which he agreed to do. However, Guru Hargobind asked that the princes be released also. The Emperor agreed, but said only those who could hold onto his cloak tail would be allowed to leave the prison. This was in order to limit the number of prisoners who could leave.

However, Guru Hargobind had made a large cloak with 52 pieces of string and so each prince was able to hold onto one string and leave prison.

Sikhs celebrated the return of Guru Hargobind Ji by lighting the Golden Temple and this tradition continues today.

Martyrdom of Bhai Mani Singh Ji

Another important Sikh event associated with Diwali is the martyrdom in 1734 of the elderly Sikh scholar and strategist Bhai Mani Singh, the Granthi (priest) of Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple). He had refused to pay a special tax on a religious meeting of the Khalsa on the Diwali day. This and other Sikh martyrdoms gave further momentum to the Khalsa struggle for freedom and eventually success in establishing the Khalsa rule north of Delhi

Bhai Mani Singh was a great scholar and he transcribed the final version of Guru Granth Sahib upon dictation from Guru Gobind Singh Ji in 1704. He took charge of Harmandir Sahib's management on 1708. In 1737, he received permission from Mughal governor of Punjab, Zakarya Khan for celebrating Diwali at Golden Temple for a massive tax of Rs. 5,000 (some authors say it was Rs 10,000). Invitations were sent to the Sikhs all over India to join Bandi Chhorh Diwas celebrations at Harmandir Sahib. Bhai Mani Singh thought he would collect the tax-money from the Sikhs as subscriptions who would assemble for the purpose of Diwali Celebrations. But Bhai Mani Singh Ji later discovered the secret plan of Zakarya Khan to kill the Sikhs during the gathering. Bhai Mani Singh Ji immediately sent message to all the Sikhs not to turn up for celebrations. Bhai Mani Singh could not manage to arrange the money to be paid for tax. Zakariya Khan was not happy about the situation and he ordered Bhai Mani Singh's assassination at Lahore by ruthlessly cutting him limb-by-limb to death. Ever since, the great sacrifice & devotion of martyr Bhai Mani Singh Ji is remembered on the Bandi Chhorh Diwas (Diwali) celebration.

Uprising against the Mughal Empire

The festival of Diwali became the second most important day after the Baisakhi, when Khalsa was formally established by the Tenth Guru Gobind Singh in 1699.

The Sikh struggle for freedom, which intensified in the 18th century, came to be centered around this day. After the execution of Banda Bahadur in 1716, who had led the agrarian uprising in Punjab, the Sikhs started the tradition of deciding matters concerning the community at the biennial meetings which took place at Amritsar on the first of Baisakh and at Diwali. These assemblies were known as the "Sarbat Khalsa" and a resolution passed by it became a "gurmata" (decree of the Guru).

[edit] Diwali in different regions of India

The celebrations vary in different regions:

In South India

In Southern India, naraka chaturdashi is the main day, with celebration with firecrackers at dawn after lakshmi puja.
The main festival in North India is on Amavasya (No moon) evening with Lakshmi Puja which is followed by lighting of oil lamps around the house.

In Maharashtra

A circular arrangement of diyas.

In Maharashtra, Diwali starts from Vasubaras which is the 12th day of the 2nd half of the month of Ashwin. This day is celebrated by performing an Aarti of the cow and its calf- which is a symbol of love between mother and her baby.

The next day is Dhanatrayodashi (tra-3 dashi-10 i.e. 10+3=13th day) or Dhanteras. This day is of special importance for traders and business people.

The 14th day of Ashwin is Narakchaturdashi. On this day before sunrise, people wake up and bathe after rubbing scented oil on their body (they also bathe using Utna). After this the entire family visits a temple and offers prayers to their God. After this visit, everyone feasts on Faral which is a special Diwali preparation consisting of delectable sweets such as "karanji", "ladoo", "shankarpale" and "mithai" as well as some spicy eatables like "chakli", "sev" and "chivda".

Then comes Laxmi- poojan. It occurs on Amavasya i.e. no moon day. The dark night is illuminated by lamps and at dusk crackers are burst. New account books are opened after a pooja. The stock exchange performs a token bidding called Muhurta bidding. Generally the traders do not make any payments on that day (according to their belief Laxmi should not be given away but must come home). In every household, cash, jewellery and an idol of the goddess Laxmi is worshipped. Friends, neighbours and relatives are invited over and celebrations are in full swing. The broom used to clean one's house is also worshipped as a symbol of laxmi in some places .

Padwa' is the 1st day of the new month - Kartik in the Hindu calendar.

Bhaubeej - it is the time where in the bond of love between a brother and sister is further strengthened as the sister asks God for her brother/s long and successful life while she receives presents from her beloved brother/s.

Homes are cleaned and decorated before Diwali. Offices perform pooja. Bonuses and holidays are granted to employees on these auspicious days. People buy property and gold on these days too. Children build replica forts in memory of the founder of Maratha empire, Shivaji Maharaj. For children, Fire works, new clothes and sweets make Deepavali the most eagerly awaited festival of the year.

In Bengal (Dipavali)

Kali Puja is light-up night for Kolkata, corresponding to the festival of Diwali (pronounced Dipabali in Bengali), where people light candles in memory of the souls of departed ancestors. The Goddess Kali is worshipped at night on one night during this festival. This is also a night of fireworks, with local youth burning sparklers and crackers throughout the night. Kolkata had to pass legislature a few years back to ban fireworks which break the 65 decibel sound limit, as ambient noise levels were going up to 90 decibels or more in parts of the city.

Melas

Mehndi is applied on women's hands at a Diwali Mela.

To add to the festival of Diwali, fairs (or 'melas') are held throughout India. Melas are to be found in many towns and villages. A mela generally becomes a market day in the countryside when farmers buy and sell produce. Girls and women dress attractively during the festival. They wear colourful clothing and new jewelry, and their hands are decorated with henna designs.

Among the many activities that take place at a mela are performances by jugglers, acrobats, snake charmers and fortune tellers. Food stalls are set up, selling sweet and spicy foods. There are a variety of rides at the fair, which include Ferris wheels and rides on animals such as elephants and camels. Activities for children, such as puppet shows, occur throughout the day.

In other parts of the world

Diwali celebrations in Coventry, United Kingdom.

The Divali Nagar or Diwali village in Chaguanas, Trinidad and Tobago.

In Singapore, Diwali is marked by 2 kilometres of lights across the Little India area.

Diwali is celebrated in various parts of the world, in countries such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Suriname, Canada, Guyana, Mauritius, Fiji, Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, Australia, much of Africa, and the United States. With more and more Indians and Sri Lankans now migrating to various parts of the world, the number of countries where Diwali is celebrated has been gradually increasing. While in some countries it is celebrated mainly by Indian expatriates, in others it has become part of the general local culture. In most of these countries Diwali is celebrated on the same lines as described in this article with some minor variations. Some important variations are worth mentioning.

In Nepal, Diwali is known as "Tihar" or "Swanti". It is celebrated during the October/November period. Here the festival is celebrated for five days and the traditions vary from those followed in India. On the first day (Kaag tihar), crows are given offerings, considering them to be divine messengers. On the second day (Kukur tihar), dogs are worshipped for their honesty. On the third day, Laxmi puja and worship of cow is performed. This is the last day according to Nepal Sambat, so many of the businessmen clear their accounts on this day and on finishing it, worship goddess Laxmi, the goddess of wealth. The fourth day is celebrated as new year. Cultural processions and other celebrations are observed in this day. The Newars celebrate it as "Mha Puja", a special ritual in which the body is worshipped to keep it fit and healthy for the year ahead on this day. On the fifth and final day called "Bhai Tika", brothers and sisters meet and exchange pleasantries.

In Trinidad and Tobago, communities all over the islands get together and celebrate the festival. One major celebration that stands out is the Diwali Nagar, or Village of the Festival of Lights. It features stage performances by the east Indian cultural practitioners, a folk theatre featuring skits and plays, an exhibition on some aspect of Hinduism, displays by various Hindu religious sects and social organizations, nightly worship of Goddess Lakshmi, lighting of deeyas, performances by various schools related to Indian culture, and a food court with Indian and non-Indian vegetarian delicacies. The festival culminates with magnificent fireworks displays ushering in Diwali. Thousands of people participate in an atmosphere devoid of alcohol and in a true family environment.

In Malaysia, Diwali is known as "Hari Deepavali," and is celebrated during the seventh month of the Hindu solar calendar. It is a federal public holiday throughout Malaysia. In many respects it resembles the traditions followed in the Indian subcontinent. 'Open houses' are held where Hindu Malaysians welcome fellow Malaysians of different races and religions to their house for a sumptious meal. 'Open house' or 'rumah terbuka' is a practice very much unique to Malaysia and shows the goodwill and friendly ties practised by all Malaysians during any festive occasion.

In Singapore, the festival is called "Deepavali", and is a gazetted public holiday. Observed primarily by the minority Indian community, it is typically marked by a light-up in the Little India district. The Hindu Endowment Board of Singapore along with Singapores' government organizes many cultural events around Deepavali time.

In Sri Lanka, this festival is also called "Deepavali" and is celebrated by the Tamil community. On this day, it is traditional for people to wear new clothes and exchange pleasantries.

In Britain, Hindus and Sikhs celebrate Diwali with great enthusiasm and in most ways very similarly to as in India. People clean and decorate their homes with lamps and candles.A popular type of candle used to represent this holiday is a diya. People also give each other sweets such as laddoo and barfi, and the different communities may gather from around the country for a religious ceremony and get-together. It is also an important time to contact family in India and perhaps exchange gifts through the post. It is a greatly celebrated holiday and is a great way to connect with the culture and heritage of India. Diwali is becoming a well known festival in Britain and non-Indians also join in the festivities. Leicester plays hosts to some of the biggest celebrations outside of India itself.

In New Zealand, Diwali is celebrated publically among many of the South Asian diaspora cultural groups. There are main public festivals in Auckland and Wellington, with other events around the country becoming more popular and visible.^[11]

Fireworks

Fireworks in Diwali celebration at The University of Texas at Austin, 2007

To enhance the joy of Diwali both the young and the old light firecrackers and fireworks at night. Nowadays there is a significant growth in campaigns on creating awareness over the adverse impacts of noise and air pollution. Some Governments drive to keep the festival less noisy and pollution-free. The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board has banned production of crackers with noise levels of over 125 decibels. In survey of UP Pollution Control Board, it was revealed that the emission of smoke was found more in the light illuminating fire crackers. Levels of SO₂ (Sulfur dioxide) and RSPM (respirable suspended particulate matter) was found marginally higher on Diwali day. Crackers, which use large quantities of sulfur and paper, spew out sulfur dioxide and charcoal into the air, also lead and other metallic substances are suspended in the air causing respiratory problems. Considering these facts, bursting of crackers is prohibited in silent zones i.e. near hospitals, schools and courts.

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Recreation and sports

The annual snake boat race is performed during Onam Celebrations on the Pamba River at Aranmula near Pathanamthitta, Kerala.

In the area of recreation and sports India had evolved a number of games. The modern eastern martial arts originated as ancient games and martial arts in India, and it is believed by some that these games were transmitted to foreign countries, where they were further adapted and modernized. A few games introduced during the British Raj have grown quite popular in India, field hockey, football (soccer) and especially cricket.

Although field hockey is India's official national sport, cricket is by far the most popular sport not only in India, but the entire subcontinent, thriving recreationally and professionally. Cricket has even been used recently as a forum for diplomatic relations between India and Pakistan. The two nations' cricket teams face off annually and such contests are quite impassioned on both sides. Traditional indigenous sports include kabaddi and gilli-danda, which are played in most parts of the country. Indoor and outdoor games like Chess, Snakes and Ladders, Playing cards, Polo, Carrom, Badminton are popular. Chess was invented in India.

Clothing

Bangles on display in Rajasthan, India.

Traditional Indian clothes for women are the sari or the salwar kameezand also Ghaghra Cholis (Lehengas). For men, it is the Dhoti, Lungi or Kurta. Bombay, or also known as Mumbai is one of India's fashion capitals. In some village parts of India, traditional clothing will be most worn. Delhi, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Pune, are all places for on going shoppers.

Cuisine

Fish curry and rice served in Goa.

The multiple families of Indian cuisine are characterized by their sophisticated and subtle use of many spices and herbs. Each family of this cuisine is characterized by a wide assortment of dishes and cooking techniques. Though a significant portion of Indian food is vegetarian, many traditional Indian dishes also include chicken, goat, lamb, fish, and other meats.

Food is an important part of Indian culture, playing a role in everyday life as well as in festivals. In many families, everyday meals are sit-down affairs consisting of two to three main course dishes, varied accompaniments such as chutneys and pickles, carbohydrate staples such as rice and roti (bread), as well as desserts. Food is not just important for an Indian family by ways of eating, but it is also taken as a sort of socializing, getting together with a family of many.

Diversity is a defining feature of India's geography, culture, and food. Indian cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the varied demographics of the ethnically diverse subcontinent. Generally, Indian cuisine can be split into four categories: North, South, East, and West Indian. Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge. Varied uses of spices are an integral part of food preparation, and are used to enhance the flavor of a dish and create unique flavors and aromas. Cuisine across India has also been influenced by various cultural groups that entered India throughout history, such as the Persians, Mughals, and European powers.

Popular media

Cinema

Apu from Satyajit Ray's Pather Panchali, which was one of the first Indian films to attract widespread international critical acclaim

Shooting of a Bollywood dance number.

Bollywood is the informal name given to the popular Mumbai-based film industry in India. Bollywood and the other major cinematic hubs (Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu) constitute the broader Indian film industry, whose output is considered to be the largest in the world in terms of number of films produced and number of tickets sold.

Besides the commercial films, India has also produced many critically acclaimed cinema-makers like Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, K. Vishwanath, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Girish Kasaravalli, Shekhar Kapoor, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Shankar Nag, Girish Karnad, G. V. Iyer, etc. (See Indian film directors). In fact, with the opening up of the economy in the recent years and consequent exposure to world cinema, audience tastes have been changing. In addition, multiplexes have mushroomed in most cities, changing the revenue patterns.

Television

Indian television started off in 1959 in New Delhi with tests for educational telecasts.^[12] Indian small screen programming started off in the mid 1970s. At that time there was only one national channel Doordarshan, which was government owned. 1982 saw revolution in TV programming in India, with the New Delhi Asian games, India saw the colour version of TV, that year. The Ramayana and Mahabharat were some among the popular television series produced. By the late 1980s more and more people started to own television sets. Though there was a single channel, television programming had reached saturation. Hence the government opened up another channel which had part national programming and part regional. This channel was known as DD 2 later DD Metro. Both channels were broadcasted terrestrially.

In 1991, the government liberated its markets, opening them up to cable television. Since then, there has been a spurt in the number of channels available. Today, Indian silver screen is a huge industry by itself, and has thousands of programmes in all the states of India. The small screen has produced numerous celebrities of their own kind some even attaining national fame for themselves. TV soaps are extremely popular with housewives as well as working women, and even men of all kinds. Some small time actors have made it big in Bollywood. Indian TV has evolved to be similar to Western TV, including stations such as Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, and MTV India.

See also: List of Indian television stations

Radio

Radio broadcasting began in India in 1927, with two privately owned transmitters at Bombay and Calcutta. These were nationalised in 1930 and operated under the name "Indian Broadcasting Service" until 1936, when it was renamed All India Radio (AIR). Although officially renamed again to Akashwani in 1957, it is still popularly known as All India Radio. All India Radio is a division of Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India), an autonomous corporation of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. It is the sister service of Prasar Bharati's Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster.Indian women are effected by daily serials.Since the turn of the 20th century, radio frequencies in India have been aggressively opened up to broadcasters on the FM and AM bands, although such service has been mostly limited to the metropolitan areas. Cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, Bangalore, and many others have many private FM channels to broadcast popular Hindi and English music, although they are still not allowed to broadcast news like Akashwani does. Recently World Space launched the country's first satellite radio service.

Religion and philosophy

Philosophy

Main article: Indian philosophy

Swami Vivekananda was one of the most famous and influential social reformers of the 19th century.

Indian philosophy throughout the ages has had a tremendous impact on world thought, especially in the east. Following the Vedic period, various schools of philosophy, such as the many sects of Buddhism and Hinduism, have developed over the past 2500 years. However, India has also produced some of the oldest and most influential secular traditions of logic, rationalism, science, mathematics, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, etc., which are often overlooked due to the popular conception that India was and is a 'mystical' country.

Many of complex scientific and mathematical concepts, such as the idea of zero, found their way to Europe via Arab intermediaries. The most famous school of Indian atheism, is Cārvāka, considered by some to be the oldest materialistic school of thought in the world, composed around the same time as the early philosophy of Buddhism and Jainism. The period around 500 BCE is marked a huge leap in both Indian and world philosophy, with contemporaneous Greek schools emerging simultaneously. Some believe that certain Indian philosophical concepts have been introduced to Greece, while others traveled via the Persian empire to India; during and after the campaigns of Alexander the Great such mutual exchanges increased.

In addition to the unbroken high emphasis placed on philosophy in India since ancient times, modern India has produced some very influential philosophers, who have written both in their native languages, and often in English. During the British colonization of India, certain secular and religious thinkers achieved a similar level of recognition across the world as ancient Indian texts; the work of some of them was translated into English, German and other languages. Swami Vivekananda traveled to America and participated in the 1893 World Parliament of Religions, impressing delegates with a groundbreaking speech that for many of them provided a first introduction to Hindu philosophy.

Various religious thinkers such as Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore and other members of the Indian freedom movement, created new forms of political philosophy that formed the basis of modern Indian democracy, secularism and liberalism. Today, economists such as Amartya Sen, who won Asia's first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, continue to give India a reputation as an important contributor to world thought.

Religion

The Jama Masjid in Delhi is one of the world's largest mosques.

A statue in Bangalore, Karnataka depicting Siva in yogic meditation.

Main articles: Religion in India and Indian religions

Indian religions, a major form of world religions next to the Abrahamic ones, include Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, with around 1.4 billion followers.

India is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with some of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion still plays a central and definitive role in the life of most of its people.

The religion of more than 80.4% of the people is Hinduism. Islam is practiced by around 13.4% of all Indians. Sikhism, Jainism and especially Buddhism are influential not only in India but across the world. Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith are also influential but their numbers are smaller. Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life, atheism and agnostics also have visible influence.

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Visual arts
Painting
The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of pre-historic times, the petroglyphs as found in places like Bhimbetka, some of which go back to the Stone Age. Ancient texts outline theories of darragh and anecdotal accounts suggesting that it was common for households to paint their doorways or indoor rooms where guests resided.

Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora and Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made coloured flour design (Rangoli) is still a common sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South Indian) Indian homes.
Madhubani painting, Mysore painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting, Mughal painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while Raja Ravi Varma, Nandalal Bose, Geeta Vadhera,Jamini Roy and B.Venkatappa are some modern painters. Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These recent artists have acquired international recognition. Devajyoti Ray's paintings have been acquired by the National Fine Arts Museum in Cuba and so have been the works of some of the new generation artists.
Jehangir Art Gallery, Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display several good Indian paintings.

Sculpture
The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilization, where stone and bronze figures have been discovered. Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism developed further, India produced some extremely intricate bronzes as well as temple carvings. Some huge shrines, such as the one at Ellora were not constructed by using blocks but carved out of solid rock.

Hindu sculptures at the famous Khajuraho temple in Madhya Pradesh

Sculptures produced in the northwest, in stucco, schist, or clay, display a very strong blend of Indian and Classical Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman influence. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved almost simultaneously. During the Gupta period (4th to 6th century) sculpture reached a very high standard in execution and delicacy in modeling. These styles and others elsewhere in India evolved leading to classical Indian art that contributing to Buddhist and Hindu sculpture throughout Southeast Central and East Asia.

Architecture
Indian architecture encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, constantly absorbing new ideas. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. Some of its earliest production are found in the Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BCE) which is characterised by well planned cities and houses. Religion and kingship do not seem to have played an important role in the planning and layout of these towns.

The Wheel of Konark, Sun Temple, Orissa

During the period of the Maurya and Gupta empires and their successors, several Buddhist architectural complexes, such as the caves of Ajanta and Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa were built. Later on, South India produced several Hindu temples like Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura, Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur, the Sun Temple, Konark, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and the Buddha stupa (Chinna Lanja dibba and Vikramarka kota dibba) at Bhattiprolu. Angkor Wat, Borobudur and other Buddhist and Hindu temples indicate strong Indian influence on South East Asian architecture, as they are built in styles almost identical to traditional Indian religious buildings.

Hoysala temple at Somanathapura, Karnataka
With the advent Islamic influence from the west, Indian architecture was adapted to allow the traditions of the new religion. Fatehpur Sikri, Taj Mahal, Gol Gumbaz, Qutub Minar, Red Fort of Delhi are creations of this era, and are often used as the stereotypical symbols of India. The colonial rule of the British Empire saw the development of Indo-Saracenic style, and mixing of several other styles, such as European Gothic. The Victoria Memorial or the Victoria Terminus are notable examples. Recent creations such as the Lotus Temple, and the various modern urban developments of India, are notable.
The traditional system of Vaastu Shastra serves as India's version of Feng Shui, influencing town planning, architecture, and ergonomics. It is unclear which system is older, but they contain certain similarities. Feng Shui is more commonly used throughout the world. Though Vastu is conceptually similar to Feng Shui in that it also tries to harmonize the flow of energy, (also called life-force or Prana in Sanskrit and Chi/Ki in Chinese/Japanese), through the house, it differs in the details, such as the exact directions in which various objects, rooms, materials, etc. are to be placed.
Indian architecture has influenced eastern and southeastern Asia, due to the spread of Buddhism. A number of Indian architectural features such as the temple mound or stupa, temple spire or sikhara, temple tower or pagoda and temple gate or torana, have become famous symbols of Asian culture, used extensively in East Asia and South East Asia. The central spire is also sometimes called a vimanam. The southern temple gate, or gopuram is noted for its intricacy and majesty.

Traditions of India

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The culture of India has been shaped by the long history of India, its unique geography and the absorption of customs, traditions and ideas from some of its neighbors as well as by preserving its ancient heritages, which were formed during the Indus Valley Civilization and evolved further during the Vedic age, rise and decline of Buddhism, Golden age, Muslim conquests and European colonization. India's great diversity of cultural practices, languages, customs, and traditions are examples of this unique co-mingling over the past five millennea.

India is also the birth place of several religious systems such as Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, some of which have had a large influence in other parts of the world. The various religions and traditions of India that were created by these amalgamations have influenced other parts of the world too.

Language

The great number of languages in India have added to the diverse cultures and traditions at both regional and national levels. 216 languages are spoken by a group of more than 10,000 people; however there are many others which are spoken by fewer than 10,000 people. All together, there are 415 living languages in India. The Constitution of India has stipulated the usage of Hindi and English to be the two official languages of communication for the Union Government. Individual state's own internal communications are done in the state's language. The two major linguistic families in India are those of the Indo-Aryan languages and the Dravidian languages, the former being largely confined to northern, western, central and eastern India and the latter to southern India. The next largest language family in India is the Austro-Asiatic language group, which contains the Munda languages of central and eastern India, the Khasian languages of northeastern India, and the Nicobarese languages of the Nicobar Islands. The fourth largest language family in India is the Tibeto-Burman languages, which are themselves a subgroup of the larger Sino-Tibetan language family.

Literature

History

The earliest literary traditions were oral and have been passed down as such. Later, though, they were transcribed. Many of them derive from Hindu tradition and are represented by texts in Sanskrit such as the Vedas, the epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Other are in Sangam literature from the beginning of the Common Era, and in Kannada such as the writings Prabhrita (650 CE) and Chudamani (Crest Jewel- 650 CE or earlier; a 96,000 verse commentary on logic)^[1]^[2]^[3]. Furthermore, many Buddhist sutras and Jain works are in Prakrit languages like Pali (c. 250 BCE) and Ardhamagadhi, and later on in Sanskrit. All these represent some of India's oldest literary traditions.

Rabindranath Tagore became Asia's first Nobel laureate when he won the 1913 Nobel Prize in Literature

During the period of the Delhi sultanate (after 1200 CE) and in the subsequent Mughal era, Islamic culture has influenced medieval Indian literature.This was especially due to the increased influence of Persian, including the work of famous poets such as Amir Khusro.

During the period of English colonial rule, modern literature exemplified by the works of Rabindranath Tagore, Subramania Barathi, Kuvempu, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Munshi Premchand, Muhammad Iqbal, Devaki Nandan Khatri became prominent. In contemporary India, writers like Girish Karnad, Agyeya, Nirmal Verma, Kamleshwar, Vaikom Muhammad Basheer, Indira Goswami, Mahasweta Devi, Amrita Pritam, Maasti Venkatesh Ayengar, Qurratulain Hyder and Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, to name but a few, have been the recipients of critical acclaim.

Poetry

India has strong traditions of poetry ever since the Rigveda, as well as prose compositions. Poetry is often closely related to musical traditions, and much of poetry can be attributed to religious movements. Writers and philosophers were often also skilled poets. In modern

Illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra.
With more than 74,000 verses, long prose
passages, and about 1.8 million words in total,
the Mahābhārata is one of the longest epic poems in the world.

times, poetry has served as an important non-violent tool of nationalism during the Indian freedom movement. A famous modern example of this tradition can be found in such figures as Rabindranath Tagore and K. S. Narasimhaswamy in modern times and poets such as Basava (vachanas) , Kabir and Purandaradasa (padas and devaranamas) in medieval times, as well as the epics of ancient times. Two examples of poetry from Tagore's Gitanjali serve as the national anthems of both India and Bangladesh.

Epics

The Ramayana and Mahabharata are the oldest preserved and still well-known epics of India; some of their versions have been adopted as the epics of Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. In addition, there are five epics in the classical Tamil language -they being Silappadhikaram, Manimegalai, Jeevaga-chintamani, Valayaapathi, Kundalakesi. Other regional variations of them as well as unrelated epics include the Tamil Kamba Ramayanam, in Kannada, the Pampa Bharata by Adikavi Pampa, Torave Ramayana by Kumara Valmiki and Karnata Bharata KathaManjari by Kumaravyasa, Hindi Ramacharitamanasa, Malayalam Adhyathmaramayanam.

Performing arts

Music

The music of India includes multiples varieties of religious, folk, popular, pop, and classical music. The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the Samaveda that are still

Purandara Dasa, one of the most prominent composers of Carnatic music.

in certain Vedic Shrauta sacrifices. India's classical music tradition is heavily influenced by Hindu texts. It includes Carnatic and Hindustani music and is noted for the use of several Raga, has a history spanning millennia, and, developed over several eras, remains instrumental to the religious inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment. Alongside distinctly subcontinental forms, there are some similarities with other types of Oriental music.

Purandaradasa is considered the "father of carnatic music" (Karnataka sangeeta pitamaha). He concluded his songs with a salutation to Lord Purandara Vittala and is believed to have composed as many as 475,000 songs in the Kannada language. However, only about 1000 are known today.

Dance

Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Jharkhand and Orissa and the ghoomar of Rajasthan. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of the state of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.^[9]

Children in Tripura Goria Puja. prepare for traditional dance on the eve of

Martial arts

Kalarippayattu or Kalari for short is one of the world's oldest martial art. It is preserved in texts such as the Mallapurana. Kalari and other later formed martial arts have been assumed by some to have traveled to China, like Buddhism, and eventually developing into Kung-fu. Other later martial arts are Gatka,Pehlwani,and Malla-yuddha. There have been many great practitioners of Indian martial Arts including Bodhidharma who supposedly brought Indian martial arts to China.

Drama and theatre

Indian drama and theatre has a long history alongside its music and dance. Kalidasa's plays like Shakuntala and Meghadoota are some of the older plays, following those of Bhasa. One of the oldest surviving theatre tradition of the world is the 2000 year old Kutiyattam of Kerala. It strictly follows the Natya Shastra. The dramas of Bhasa are very popular in this art form. Nātyāchārya (late) Padma Shri Māni Mādhava Chākyār- the unrivaled maestro of this art form and Abhinaya, revived the age old drama tradition from extinction. He was known for mastery of Rasa Abhinaya. He started to perform the Kalidasa plays like Abhijñānaśākuntala, Vikramorvaśīya and Mālavikāgnimitra ; Bhasa's Swapnavāsavadatta and Pancharātra; Harsha's Nagananda in Kutiyattam form.

Natyacarya Mani Madhava Chakyar as Ravana in Bhasa's Abhiṣeka NatakaKutiyattam- one of the oldest surviving drama tradition of the world

The tradition of folk theatre is alive in nearly all of the linguistic regions of the country.In addition, there is a rich tradition of puppet theatre in rural India, going back to at least the second century BCE. (It is mentioned in Patanjali's commentary on Panini). Group Theatre is also thriving in the cities, initiated by the likes of Gubbi Veeranna Utpal Dutt, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, K. V. Subbanna and still maintained by groups like Nandikar, Ninasam and Prithvi Theatre.